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CROWN    THEOLOGICAL    LIBRARY 


VOL.   VIII. 
CHEYNE'S    BIBLE    PROBLEMS 


Crown  UbeoloGtcal  Xtbrat^ 


WORKS  ALREADY  PUBLISHED 


Vol.  I.— BABEL    AND     BIBLE.       By     Dr 

Friedrich  Delitzsch,  Professor  of  Assyriology  in  the 
University  of  Berlin.     5s. 

Vol.  II.— THE  VIRGIN  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST. 

An  Historical  and  Critical  Essay.    By  Paul  Lobstein. 

Vol.  III.— MY    STRUGGLE     FOR    LIGHT. 

Confessions  of  a  Preacher.     By  R.  Wimmer.     3s.  6d. 

Vol.  IV.— LIBERAL     CHRISTIANITY.       Its 

Origin,  Nature,  and  Mission.     By  Jean  R^ville.     4s. 

Vol.  v.— WHAT    IS    CHRISTIANITY?      By 

Adolf  Harnack.     5s. 

Vol.  VI.— FAITH   AND    MORALS.      By   W. 

Herrmann.    5s. 

Vol.  VII.— EARLY    HEBREW    STORY.      A 

Study  of  the  Origin,  the  Value,  and  the  Historical 
Background  of  the  Legends  of  Israel.  By  John  P. 
Peters,  D.D.     5s. 


BIBLE   PROBLEMS 

AND    THE 

NEW  MATERIAL    FOR   THEIR 
SOLUTION 

A  PLEA  FOR  THOROUGHNESS  OF  INVESTIGATION 
ADDRESSED     TO     CHURCHMEN     AND     SCHOLARS 


BY 

T.   K.   CHEYNE,   D.Litt.,    D.D. 

FELLOW  OF  THE   BRITISH   ACADEMY 

ORIEL   PROFESSOR  OF  INTERPRETATION   IN  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF   OXFORD 

AND   CANON  OF   ROCHESTER 


WILLIAMS   &   NORGATE 

14  HENRIETTA  STREET,   COVENT  GARDEN,    LONDON 

NEW  YORK:    G.   R   PUTNAM'S   SONS 
1904 


^\5 


^^^U' 


PREFACE 

The  present  Volume  is  an  expansion,  with 
elucidatory  notes,  of  the  Lecture  which  I 
delivered  before  the  Churchmen's  Union,  at 
the  Church  House,  on  June  16,  1904.  It 
was  addressed  to  Churchmen  who  took  an 
intelligent  interest  in  the  Bible,  and  wished 
to  know  how  critical  Bible-study  w^as  affected 
by  recently  discovered  facts,  but  for  that  very 
reason  it  also  appealed  in  a  secondary  degree 
to  special  scholars.  For  there  are  notoriously 
at  the  present  time  great  differences  among 
scholars,  caused  by  a  difference  of  mental 
attitude  towards  new  facts.  This  work  is 
partly  an  exposition  of  the  new  facts,  partly 
a  plea  for  a  bolder  style  of  Biblical  criti- 
cism, justified    and    invited    by  those    facts. 


6  Preface 

It  may  possibly  be  called  a  specimen  of  ad- 
vanced criticism,  but  it  is  not  as  such  that  I 
offer  it,  for  my  only  object  has  been  to  make 
it  as  thorough  as  the  occasion  allowed.  If  in 
order  to  be  thorough  I  have  sometimes  been 
compelled  to  go  beyond  my  fellow-scholars, 
such  unsought  originality  may  perhaps  be 
pardoned. 

Some  of  the  subjects  here  treated  of  are 
closely  related  to  the  Christian  faith.  They 
have  been  taken  up  under  a  strong  but  animat- 
ing sense  of  responsibility.  It  will  at  least 
be  recognized  that  their  tendency  is  not  sub- 
versive, but,  in  so  far  as  the  affirmations  of 
the  general  Christian  consciousness  are  con- 
cerned, conservative.  Should  any  one  of  those 
whose  gift  is  that  of  steering  the  Church  find 
time  to  look  into  this  book,  I  would  venture 
to  suggest  that  the  part  which  it  most  con- 
cerns him  to  test  is  the  account  given  of  these 
affirmations,  because  they  seem  to  determine 
the  sense  in  which  ordinary  thoughtful  Church- 
men use  certain  statements  of  the  Apostles' 


Preface  7 

Creed.  On  the  other  hand,  students  of  the 
history  of  our  reUgion  will,  I  hope,  take  a 
special  interest  in  the  view  given  of  the  origin 
of  the  forms  in  which  those  affirmations  are 
expressed  in  the  Creed.  It  is  hoped  that 
fresh  light  may  have  been  thrown  on  the  true 
meaning  of  the  Biblical  passages  on  which 
these  forms  of  statement  are  based.  Should 
this  be  the  case,  it  will  be  largely  due  to  Pro- 
fessor Gunkel's  researches,  as  summarized  in 
the  recent  tractate  mentioned  below.  At  the 
same  time,  it  will  be  clear  to  the  intelligent 
reader  that  I  have  preserved  my  own  in- 
dependence of  judgment  even  while  I  learn 
from  him ;  and  I  may  say  once  more  that 
on  the  line  which  Professors  Gunkel  and 
Zimmern  have  taken  as  mythologists,  I  have 
been  to  some  extent  their  predecessor  and 
fellow-worker. 

In  the  above  I  have  referred  especially  to 
Part  II.  of  the  Lecture.  In  Part  IV.  I  have 
devoted  myself  to  new  facts  bearing  on  the 
Old    Testament.     I    trust  that  no  one  will 


8  Preface 

accuse  me  of  assuming  as  proved  what  is  still 
sub  judice,  I  have  endeavoured  to  distinguish 
between  facts,  which  may  be  ignored,  but 
cannot  be  argued  away,  and  the  inferences 
which  follow  from  those  facts.  At  the  same 
time,  no  one,  I  hope,  will  blame  me  for  hold- 
ing that  some  of  my  inferences  are  too  well- 
founded  to  be  safely  denied.  Some  other  facts, 
for  which  further  evidence  is  still  to  be  desired, 
are  given  in  one  of  the  appended  Notes. 

I  have  no  wish  to  enter  into  any  of  the 
current  theological  controversies.  In  deliver- 
ing this  Lecture,  and  in  expanding  it  for  the 
press,  I  have  felt  myself  in  a  world  where 
"beyond  these  voices  there  is  peace."  But  I 
may  perhaps  express  the  hope  that  the  tone, 
and,  in  one  important  respect,  the  method,  of 
this  book  may  make  it  useful  as  a  corrective 
to  Mr  Mallock's  ably  written  but  contro- 
versial, and,  as  I  think,  in  its  main  conclu- 
sions, misleading  article,  "Free  Thought  in 
the  Church,"  Nineteenth  Century  and  After, 
September  1904,  pp.  386-401. 


Preface  9 

To  facilitate  study  I  have  prefixed  a  Sum- 
mary of  the  Contents  of  the  Lecture,  giving 
those  of  the  first  two  parts  with  special  ful- 
ness. May  I  add  the  request  that  the  Notes 
may  be  perused  by  those  who  are  interested 
in  the  Bible  with  not  less  care  than  the 
Lecture  ? 


CHIEF   ABBREVIATIONS 

Sckopjung.  Schopfung  und  Chaos  in  Urzeit  und  Endzeit. 
Von  H.  Gunkel.  Mit  Beitragen  von  H.  Zimmern. 
Gottingen,  1895. 

Verst'dndniss.  Zum  religionsgeschichtlichen  Verstdndniss  des 
Neuen  Testaments.  By  the  same  Author.  Gottingen, 
1903. 

K.A.T.  Die  Keilinschriften  und  das  Alte  Testament.  Von 
Eberhard  Schrader.  Dritte  Auflage,  mit  Ausdehnung 
auf  die  Apokalypsen,  Pseudepigraphen,  und  das  Neue 
Testament.  Neu  bearbeitet  von  Dr  H.  Zimmern  und 
Dr  H.  Winckler.     Berlin,  1 902-1903. 

Offenbarung.  Die  Offenbarung  Johannis  (in  Meyer's  Kom- 
mentar).     Von  Wilhelm  Bousset.     Gottingen,  1896. 


SUMMARY  OF  THE   LECTURE 
PART  I 

The  subject  of  critical  Bible-study  is  large 
and  important,  but  dangerous.  First  of  all, 
therefore,  we  must  survey  the  situation,  and 
fortify  students  by  showing  them  an  ideal  of 
character.  The  appeal  of  Huxley  in  one  of 
his  Lay  Sermons  in  1870  has  a  lesson  for  to- 
day. It  was  the  clergy  who  opposed  science, 
and  the  clergy  were  mistaken.  So  too  after- 
wards the  clergy  were  opposed  to  the  Higher 
Criticism  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  the  best 
of  the  clergy  had  to  confess  themselves  mis- 
taken. So  far,  so  good.  But  there  was  a 
deficiency  in  this  act  of  justice.  The  Higher 
Criticism  of  the  New  Testament  was  practi- 


■^\B  f<  A  ^  y 


12       Summary  of  the  Lecture 

cally  set  on  one  side,  and  those  who  sought 
to  do  critical  work  were  beset  with  exhorta- 
tions to  be  sober,  cautious,  moderate,  etc., 
with  results  most  unfavourable  to  thorough- 
ness in  the  work. 

Evidently  the  opponents  had  caught  no 
glimpse  of  the  high  ideal  of  the  true  historical 
critic  of  the  Bible.  It  is  important,  therefore, 
to  sketch  the  ideal  critic  here.  It  must, 
however,  be  admitted,  not  only  that  such  a 
critic  has  not  appeared  among  us,  but  also 
that  the  existing  criticism  has  not  aimed 
high  enough.  The  admission  may  well  in- 
spire sadness,  and  since  all  thoughtful  Church- 
men share  the  responsibility  with  the  critics 
themselves,  the  Lecturer  thinks  that  his  own 
melancholy  may  be  shared  by  some  of 
his  hearers.  A  High  Churchman,  however, 
has  provided  unconsciously  for  our  case. 
"Heaven  must  be  won,  not  dreamed." 
There  is  also  a  voice  and  a  message  for  us 
in  the  circumstances  of  the  hour,  which  may 
well  rouse  us  from  our  depression.     For  there 


Summary  of  the  Lecture       13 

is  just  now  a  revival  of  suspicion  and  de- 
nunciation. If  criticism  is  to  exist  in  the 
Church, — alien  though  it  be  to  the  Church's 
proper  object, — it  must  at  any  rate  not  be 
free  and  untrammelled.  How  shall  we 
answer  this?  Not  by  counter-denunciations, 
but  by  an  appeal  to  reason.  The  National 
Church  is  large  enough  to  include  critics,  but 
if  criticism  is  to  exist  and  prosper,  it  must 
be  a  complete  criticism.  Why  not,  indeed? 
Criticism  is  one  of  God's  gifts,  and,  through 
living  in  the  Church,  critics  can  both  give 
and  take  much  that  is  precious.  The 
Anglican  Church  is  at  once  Catholic  and 
Evangelical.  Its  theological  inconsistencies 
can  only  be  reconciled  on  the  basis  of  an 
improved  psychology  of  religion  and  a  free 
Biblical  criticism.  Without  the  latter,  at  any 
rate,  regarded  as  the  first  part  of  a  historical 
theology,  the  Church  will  be  unable  to  re-inter- 
pret and  re-formulate  its  doctrines — unable  to 
do  what  the  most  thoughtful  part  of  English 
Christendom  imperatively  demands  of  it. 


14       Summary  of  the  Lecture 

To  help  to  bring  this  about  is  the  ultimate 
object  of  educated,  liberal-minded  Churchmen. 
What  follows  from  this?  Why,  that  they 
may  fairly  be  expected  to  take  note  of  and 
encourage  more  than  one  soUtary  type  of  ' 
criticism  of  the  Bible.  He  who  knows  only 
one  religion,  knows  not  even  that  as  it  ought 
to  be  known,  and  he  who  knows  only  one 
type  of  Biblical  criticism  has  no  vital  know- 
ledge even  of  that.  Apart  from  prejudice, 
even  practical  men,  if  they  have  any  regular 
leisure  time,  will  find  it  desirable  to  read  and 
ponder  the  works  of  innovating  critics  both 
of  the  Old  and  of  the  New  Testament.  But 
it  may  perhaps  be  asked,  while  admitting 
that  the  love  of  truth  is  not  absent  from 
innovating  critics,  must  we  not  be  on  our 
guard  against  the  "wandering  lights"  that 
seem  to  us  to  beguile  them?  In  answer, 
it  may  be  said  that  the  probability  that  any 
really  and  fundamentally  extreme  critics 
should  arise  in  England  or  even  in  Germany 
is   not   very  great,  the  power  of  tradition  in 


Summary  of  the  Lecture       15 

both  those  countries,  though  doubtless  not  in 
the  same  degree,  being  so  strong.  Thought- 
ful Churchmen  hardly  need  to  be  warned 
against  English  or  even  German  advanced 
critics  on  the  ground  that  those  critics  are 
so  liable  to  be  led  astray  by  "wandering 
lights."  If  there  be  any  English  innovators, 
let  us  be  thankful  for  them.  They  must  be 
men  who,  to  all  that  moderate  critics  are 
supposed  to  possess,  superadd  an  acquaintance 
with  new  problems  and  new  methods  such 
as  those  critics  lack.  And  being  such  men, 
must  they  not  protest  against  being  con- 
demned on  utterly  false  grounds  by  critics 
who  have  not  taken  the  trouble  to  under- 
stand them? 

We  are  here  concerned  mainly  with  English 
workers,  and  we  can  willingly  admit  their 
imperfections.  Advanced  critics  may  some- 
times go  too  fast,  and  moderate  critics  too 
slowly.  For  both,  honourable  excuses  may 
be  given.  The  Lecturer  could  not  wish  any 
student  either  to   ignore   or  to  oppose  such 


1 6       Summary  of  the  Lecture 

truly  honest  men  as  our  moderate  critics, 
but  he  warns  the  student  that  too  many  of 
them  have  set  up  a  new  critical  dogmatism 
or  orthodoxy  which  bodes  evil.  Before  he 
begins  the  exposition  of  some  of  those  new 
facts  on  which  the  wider  Biblical  criticism 
of  the  future  must  be  based,  he  is  bound  to 
defend  the  new  critical  movement  against 
the  hostility  of  the  new  Church  militant,  not 
however,  by  retahation  and  censorious  criti- 
cism, but  by  a  friendly  suggestion  or  offer. 

This  offer  is  to  do  all  that  can  be  done, 
with  the  co-operation  of  fair-minded  moderate 
scholars,  to  promote  mutual  recognition  among 
Bible  students  in  general.  The  "necessary 
hostility  "  decreed  by  some  impetuous  persons 
on  the  moderate  side  would,  if  this  offer  be 
accepted,  have  to  be  broken  off,  and  the 
imitation  of  such  partisanship  on  the  part  of 
the  more  headstrong  advanced  critics  would  be 
precluded.  A  place  of  honour  would  have  to 
be  found  for  all  who  have  done  good  work 
from   any   critical   point   of    view,    and    such 


Summary  of  the  Lecture       17 

mutual  recognition  would  extinguish  narrow- 
ness and  conduce  to  the  general  progress. 
Only  thus,  as  it  would  seem,  can  the  present 
ominous  misunderstandings  be  removed.  Of 
this  offer  the  hearers  or  readers  of  the  Lecture 
are  witnesses.  They  too,  not  less  than  the 
scholars  referred  to,  are  concerned  with  the 
reception  of  this  proposal,  for  it  is  one  object 
of  the  opponents  of  the  advanced  critics  to 
prevent  these  from  exercising  any  appreciable 
influence,  at  any  rate  by  their  writings,  on 
English  Bible  students,  at  the  universities  or 
elsewhere. 

PART   II 

The  Lecturer,  having  done  his  best  to  loosen 
prejudices,  now  turns  to  his  special  theme. 
Not  light-heartedly,  for  the  Anglican  Church 
is  more  suspicious  of  research  than  was  the 
older  Latin  Church,  and  also  because  of  his 
own  share  of  human  liability  to  error.  He 
begins  with  the  New  Testament.     There  are 


1 8       Summary  of  the  Lecture 

certain  important  facts  which  are  still  new 
to  most  students,  or,  if  not  almost  new,  yet 
too  commonly  misunderstood.  The  Lecturer 
claims  the  right  to  make  this  criticism,  because 
facts  of  this  order  in  another  part  of  the  field 
have  long  been  one  of  his  special  studies. 

This  requires  a  slight  digression  to  the 
Old  Testament.  There  is  not  inconsiderable 
evidence,  both  in  Genesis  and  elsewhere, 
of  the  influence  upon  the  Israelitish  mind  of 
an  Oriental  mythology  of  Babylonian  origin. 
This  evidence  exists  sometimes  in  mere  phrases, 
but  sometimes  also  in  forms  of  belief  and  in 
detailed  narratives.  The  more  important  of 
these  clearly  show  that  the  higher  religious 
guides  of  Israel  deliberately  adopted  these 
imaginative,  non-historical,  but  from  the  very 
first  deeply  significant  representations  as  the 
repositories  of  spiritual  truths.  Conservative 
theologians  will  have  to  admit  that  the  New 
Testament  now  has  to  be  studied  from  the 
point  of  view  of  mythology  as  well  as  from 
that  of  philological  exegesis  and  church-history. 


Summary  of  the  Lecture       19 

The  similarity  of  the  New  Testament  to  the 
Old,  though  not  at  all  complete,  is  yet  quite 
sufficient  to  justify  and  require  this.  There 
are  no  doubt  various  branches  of  New  Testa- 
ment study  which  are  beginning  to  be  re- 
generated, but  for  that  harmonious  combina- 
tion of  points  of  view  which  is  necessary  for 
the  due  comprehension  of  the  New  Testament, 
it  is  essential  that  the  help  of  mythology, 
treated  of  course  by  strictly  critical  methods, 
should  be  invoked.  In  short,  there  are  parts 
of  the  New  Testament — in  the  Gospels,  in  the 
Epistles,  and  in  the  Apocalypse — which  can 
only  be  accounted  for  by  the  newly-discovered 
fact  of  an  Oriental  syncretism,  which  began 
early  and  continued  late.  And  the  leading 
factor  in  this  is  Babylonian. 

But  is  it  safe  to  take  this  line  of  criticism  ? 
The  answer  is  that  if  it  is  safe  in  the  case  of 
the  Old  Testament — and  experience  proves 
that  it  is — it  must  also  be  safe  in  that  of  the 
New.  Moreover,  even  from  an  apologetic 
point  of  view,  some  new  line  must  be  adopted. 


20       Summary  of  the  Lecture 

For  it  is  probable  that  the  prevalent  scepticism 
partly  arises  from  our  insistence  on  the 
inseparableness  of  the  form  and  the  spiritual 
contents  of  certain  very  prominent  New 
Testament  statements.  It  is  essential  that 
Church-teachers  should  prepare  for  a  radical 
change  in  their  methods.  The  course  at 
present  taken  is  scientifically  wrong,  and  seems 
inconsistent  with  a  rich  and  buoyant  faith  in 
God  and  confidence  in  truth.  Liberal  Roman 
Catholics  already  see  this  clearly,  and  the 
Lecturer  quotes  the  Baron  von  Hiigel,  as  a 
prominent  representative  of  their  school,  to 
prove  this  fact.  Historical  phenomena  must 
be  tested  by  history,  but  the  Church  is  sure 
that  facts  enough  will  remain  for  the  needs  of 
religion,  and  historical  criticism  justifies  this 
assurance. 

Among  the  more  peculiar  and  difficult  New 
Testament  statements  are  those  concerning 
the  Virgin-Birth  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  concern- 
ing His  descent  into  Hades,  to  which,  as 
hardly   less    difficult  to   the   lay  mind,  those 


Summary  of  the  Lecture       21 

respecting  His  Resurrection  and  His  Ascen- 
sion may  be  added.  A  trained  historical  and 
psychological  critic  can  take  up  such  a  subject 
calmly,  not  from  any  want  of  reverence,  but 
because  he  knows  that  the  question  of  ques- 
tions is  quite  different  from  that  which  the 
"  man  in  the  street "  and  even  the  controversial 
essayist  suppose,  viz..  What  was  there  in  the 
personaUty  of  Jesus  which  led  early  disciples 
to  identify  Him  with  the  Christ,  the  Son  of 
God? 

As  to  the  Virgin-Birth.  The  silence  of 
the  Gospels,  apart  from  the  Preludes  to  our 
Matthew  and  Luke  (the  latter  of  which  may 
not  be  in  its  original  form),  is  in  itself 
sufficiently  startling.  But  we  must  not  pause 
now  to  discuss  this  question,  for  a  more  inter- 
esting one  claims  our  attention.  It  has  often 
been  said  that  the  statement  in  Matt.  i.  18 
has  a  mythological  basis.  But  the  theory  has 
been  generally  offered  by  men  out  of  sympathy 
with  the  Church,  and  has  not  hitherto  had  a 
sufficiently  perfect   critical   form.     Let  it  be 


22       Summary  of  the  Lecture 

seen  that  the  myth  from  which  the  statement 
in  Matt.  i.  18  may,  with  much  plausibiHty, 
be  considered  to  be  drawn  was,  in  very  early 
times,  a  repository  of  spiritual  truth,  and  that 
it  existed  among  the  Jews  (as  a  portion  of  the 
popular  Messianic  doctrine)  before  it  became 
in  certain  circles  Christianized,  and  the  most 
important  objections  of  conservative  theo- 
logians will  be  met.  It  is  the  next  object  of 
the  Lecturer  to  show  this,  leaving  questions 
which  arise  incidentally — such  as  the  meaning 
of  the  "  Son  of  man  "  in  Dan.  vii.  13,  and  the 
character  and  original  position  of  Michael — to 
be  considered  in  the  Notes. 

Among  the  stories  which  may  reasonably 
be  regarded  as  parallel  to  that  of  the  Virgin- 
Birth  are  (1)  the  N.  Arabian  myth  of  Dusares, 
(2)  the  strange  narrative  in  the  Apocalypse 
(Rev.  xii.)  respecting  the  splendidly  attired 
woman  in  heaven,  and  the  great  red  dragon 
also  in  heaven,  together  with  all  that  belongs 
to  this  wondrous  tale,  in  its  origin  so  evi- 
dently Babylonian.     It  would  be  difficult  to 


Summary  of  the  Lecture       23 

exaggerate  the  importance  of  this  narrative, 
the  details  of  which  are  studied,  with  the 
necessary  condensation,  in  the  Lecture,  and  in 
more  detail  in  the  Notes,  in  which  also  cor- 
roborative Assyrio-Babylonian,  Egyptian,  and 
Persian  illustrations  are  brought  forward,  and 
the  Graeco- Asiatic  myth  of  Leto  is  recorded. 
In  the  Notes,  too,  explanations  are  given  of 
the  beautiful  story  of  the  Magi,  and  of  the 
connected  narrative  of  the  Massacre  of  the 
Innocents.  Nor  could  the  Lecturer  omit  to 
refer  to  the  reflection  in  the  Mandasan  re- 
ligious literature  of  the  ancient  mythic  state- 
ment that  the  Redeemer  of  the  world  was  the 
child  of  the  goddess  Istar,  whose  place  among 
the  Babylonians  was  not  *  altogether  unlike 
that  of  the  Virgin  Mary  in  the  Christian 
Church,  and  to  the  mythic  story  of  the  birth 
of  the  Babylonian  king  Sargon  of  Agade. 
But  the  hearer  or  reader  is  not  left  under  the 
misunderstanding  that  the  view  of  the  birth 
and  early  history  of  the  Saviour  is  practically 
the    same    as    that    of    a    Redeemer  of  the 


24       Summary  of  the  Lecture 

world  in  Oriental  mythology.  The  borrowed 
material  is  treated  with  much  freedom,  and 
the  stress  laid  on  the  virginity  of  the  Holy 
Mother  is  peculiar  to  the  Prelude  of  the  First 
Gospel,  the  author  of  which  would  doubtless 
have  much  disapproved  of  the  title  "  Virgin  " 
as  it  was  originally  understood. 

Should  anyone  still  feel  dissatisfied,  and 
question  whether  all  this  is  not  simply  due  to 
the  following  of  false  lights,  the  Lecturer  points 
to  the  numerous  imaginative  stories  in  the  later 
Jewish  literature,  and  to  parallel  narratives 
in  the  Old  Testament  itself.  Not  that  the 
Oriental  myth  of  the  Redeemer  arose  out  of 
the  fertile  imagination  of  any  individual ;  it  was 
of  primaeval  origin,  and  as  necessary  a  growth 
of  early  culture  as  any  other  of  the  most  ancient 
beliefs  of  mankind,  in  saying  which,  however, 
nothing  derogatory  can  be  intended  to  that 
true  Light,  whose  rays  may  be  discerned  in 
the  most  unlikely  places. 

After   considering   the    spiritual   truths    of 
which  the  statement  of  the  Virgin- Birth  may 


Summary  of  the  Lecture       25 

be  considered  the  repository,  and  to  which  the 
assent  of  the  Christian  heart  is  pledged,  the 
Lecturer  proceeds  to  treat  in  a  similar  manner 
the  other  prominent  statements  respecting 
Christ  which  are  difficult  to  the  lay  mind.  The 
Descent  into  Hades  is  illustrated  by  the 
Mandeean  story  of  the  Divine  Hero  who  de- 
scended into  the  nether  world  to  fight  with 
the  King  of  Darkness  and  to  liberate  the 
souls  of  the  righteous.  Evidently  this  story 
is  ultimately  Babylonian,  and  closely  con- 
nected with  the  primitive  dragon-story.  Also 
by  the  striking  and  significant  Babylonian 
myth  of  the  Descent  of  Istar,  though  here, 
of  course,  it  is  only  Istar's  dead  consort, 
Tammuz,  whom  the  divine  Visitor  to  the 
Underworld  rescues.  Other  parallels  are  also 
referred  to.  The  difficult  passage,  1  Pet.  iii. 
IS  ff.,  can  now  be  studied  more  intelligently 
than  before. 

It  thus  becomes  possible  to  explain  the 
Christian  belief  of  the  Descent  of  Christ,  and, 
in   connexion    with    this,    the    time-reference 


26       Summary  of  the  Lecture 

in  Matthew  xii.  40,  in  a  satisfactory  manner. 
Nor  can  it  well  be  denied  that  the  form  of  the 
statement  of  the  Resurrection  and  Ascension 
of  Christ  admits  of  a  similar  explanation.  The 
mythic  parallels  do  not  need  to  be  stated  at 
such  length  as  in  the  two  former  cases.  But 
it  is  hoped  that  the  conclusion  is  sufficiently 
justified.  Now  too  we  can  perhaps  explain 
more  fully  the  New  Testament  references  to 
Old  Testament  passages  as  predictions  of 
the  wonderful  circumstances  of  the  appear- 
ance, reappearance,  and  disappearance  of  the 
Christ. 

Throughout  this  part  of  the  Lecture  it  is 
assumed  that  the  form  and  spiritual  contents 
of  the  statements  are  separable.  The  form  is 
derived  from  the  pre-Christian  Oriental  and 
Jewish  tradition,  and  is  fit  matter  for  archaeo- 
logical criticism  ;  the  spiritual  contents  appeal, 
not  to  the  critic  as  such,  but  to  spiritual  men 
(whether  critics  or  not),  and  their  mouthpiece 
is  the  Church.  An  attempt  is  made  by  the 
Lecturer  to   set   forth   those   affirmations    of 


Summary  of  the  Lecture       27 

**  spiritual  men,"  Le»  of  all  who  are  Christians 
in  their  inner  life,  correctly  and  sympathetically. 
If  either  in  the  explanation  of  the  form,  or  in 
the  exposition  of  the  spiritual  contents,  of  these 
statements,  any  error  has  been  made,  the 
Lecturer  counts  on  the  charity  of  his  hearers 
or  readers  to  correct  him,  on  grounds  not 
less  carefully  and  critically  set  forth  than 
those  here  given. 


PART   III 

In  this  part  of  the  Lecture  certain  other 
facts  are  adduced,  bearing  on  New  Testament 
study.  First,  the  discovery  of  a  form  of  the 
text  of  Matt.  i.  16,  which  must  at  any  rate  be 
very  near  the  original.  Next,  an  indubitable 
inference  from  the  form  in  which  Eusebius 
quotes  Matt,  xxviii.  19.  These  are  facts  of  the 
utmost  interest  to  students  of  the  life  of  Jesus 
Christ  and  of  Christian  doctrine,  and  have  a 
special  importance  just  now,  when  Churchmen 


2  8       Summary  of  the  Lecture 

are  beginning  to  ask  how  these  great  subjects 
appear  in  the  Ught  of  a  more  thorough  and 
methodical  criticism. 


PART   IV 

In  this  part  the  Lecturer  sets  forth  the 
importance  of  several  new  problems  arising  out 
of  new  facts  {e,g,  the  problem  of  the  kings  in 
Gen.  xiv. ;  Ur  of  the  Chaldees ;  Babylonian 
legal  influence;  the  antiquity  of  the  divine 
name  Yahwe,  and  of  the  names  Hebrew  and 
Israel,  also  the  Gezer  of  1  Kings,  and  the 
existence  of  a  N.  Arabian  Musri,  Kush,  and 
Asshur).  To  solve  such  problems  we  must 
employ  one  or  both  of  the  two  fresh  keys  to 
the  interpretation  of  the  Old  Testament,  viz., 
Assyriology,  and  an  improved  textual  criticism. 
New  problems  and  new  methods  go  together, 
and  it  is  fortunate  that  in  using  the  latter  key 
undue  subjectivity  can  frequently  be  restrained 
by   considerations   arising   out   of  Winckler's 


Summary  of  the  Lecture       29 

discovery  of  a  N.  Arabian  Musri  and  Kush. 
There  are  certain  Old  Testament  passages  (a 
conspectus  of  them  is  given  in  the  Lecture)  in 
which  these  N.  Arabian  lands  must  neces- 
sarily be  referred  to,  unless  indeed  exegesis  is 
only  another  name  for  obstinate  adherence  to 
a  less  probable  opinion  in  spite  of  new  facts. 
An  appeal  is  made  to  students  to  weigh  care- 
fully both  the  facts  and  the  inferences  from 
the  facts  here  brought  to  their  notice,  and  to 
devote  a  little  more  criticism  to  the  philo- 
logical and  exegetical  theories  which  are  now 
somewhat  too  hastily  being  erected  into 
dogmas.  Old  Testament  criticism  is  not  yet 
an  adult  science ;  there  is  much  work  yet  to  be 
done,  and  the  traditional  form  of  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  needs  a  more  profound  and  a  more 
methodical  treatment.  Not  only,  however, 
for  the  sake  of  these  earlier  Scriptures,  but  for 
that  of  the  records  of  nascent  Christianity,  the 
Lecturer  urges  a  more  thorough  investigation 
of  the  Old  Testament.  There  is  no  sharp 
distinction  between  Jewish  and  Christian,  and 


30       Summary  of  the  Lecture 

in  conclusion  it  is  added  that  both  reUgions 
were  deeply  affected  by  the  syncretistic 
tendency.  The  same  methods  therefore  must 
be  applied  to  both.  And  yet  those  who  have 
a  keen  religious  sense  know  that  each  religion 
has  its  own  idiosyncrasy,  and  it  is  for  sym- 
pathetic scholars  to  make  Churchmen  under- 
stand what  this  idiosyncrasy  is. 


BIBLE    PROBLEMS 

AND    THE   NEW   MATERIAL   FOR 
THEIR   SOLUTION 


PART   I 

The  subject  I  have  chosen  is  a  large  and 
important  one,  and  if  I  consulted  my  own 
wishes  I  should  plunge  at  once  into  the  midst 
of  facts.  This  course,  however,  would  expose 
me  to  great  risk  of  being  misapprehended. 
Circumstances  have  changed  so  much,  and 
new  prejudices  are  so  rapidly  acquiring  con- 
sistence, that  an  act  of  the  simplest  faith 
and  charity  may  be  misunderstood  by  those 
who  ought  to  welcome  it.  It  is  necessary, 
therefore,  first  of  all,  to  survey,  briefly  but 
clearly,  the  present  state  of  Biblical  study, 
and  to  put  forward  such  an  ideal  of  character 


32  Bible  Problems 

for  students  as  may  fortify  them  against 
temptations ;  only  by  this  course  can  1  venture 
to  hope  that  much  of  my  own  trouble  on  the 
present  occasion  will  not  be  taken  in  vain. 
And  I  would  ask  leave  to  preface  my  survey 
by  a  reference  to  a  chapter  of  recent  history 
which  seems  to  contain  a  useful  lesson  for 
to-day. 

Imagine  yourselves,  then,  in  the  year  of 
grace  1870,  listening  to  that  great  protagonist 
of  science,  the  late  Professor  Huxley.  It  is 
one  of  the  addresses  published  in  the  volume 
called  "  Lay  Sermons " ;  the  sinewy  force  of 
its  English,  and  the  earnestness  of  the  speaker, 
give  it  permanent  value  as  a  record  of  the 
time.  In  it  Professor  Huxley  calls  upon  his 
young  hearers  to  refute  the  charge  that  the 
Christianity  of  the  nineteenth  century  has 
nothing  but  abuse  for  the  Priests  of  Science. 
It  is  for  the  honour  of  the  younger  generation 
that  he  makes  this  appeal ;  Science  herself 
is  too  great,  too  transcendental,  either  to 
take  offence  or  to  need  an  advocate ;  and  he 


Critics  and  Criticism  33 

quotes  that  fine  passage  of  Dante,^  in  which, 
describing  the  injurious  words  ignorantly 
addressed  by  men  to  Fortune  (for  Fortune 
Huxley  would  read  Science),  the  poet  says : — 

And  she  it  is,  on  whose  devoted  head 

Are  heaped  such  vile  reproach  and  calumny 
By  those  whose  praise  she  rather  merited. 

But  she  is  blest,  and  hears  not  what  they  say  ; 
With  other  primal  beings,  joyously 
She  rolls  her  sphere,  exulting  on  her  way. 

Organized  religion,  as  represented  by  the 
majority  of  our  clergy,  was  at  that  time  hostile 
to  science.  It  was  undoubtedly  a  pure  mis- 
take that  caused  this,  and  the  mistake  has 
had  a  parallel  in  still  more  recent  times.  Not 
very  long  ago,  organized  religion,  through  its 
representatives,  appeared  to  be  almost  equally 
hostile  to  Biblical  critics.  Controversy  dark- 
ened the  air,  and  the  breach  was  becoming 
irreparable,   when  in   the    nick    of    time   the 

^  Inferno,  canto  vii.,  lines  90-95.  Huxley  gives  W.  M. 
Rossetti's  translation,  which  however  is  too  literal  to 
convey  Dante's  meaning  effectively.  The  above,  which  is 
Wright's,  at  any  rate  has  the  merit  of  translating  the 
ideas. 


34  Bible  Problems 

ablest  church-leaders  were  led  to  acknowledge, 
virtually  if  not  expressly,  that  they  had  been 
in  the  wrong,  and  that  they  had  misjudged 
the  critics.  No  longer  could  they  help  seeing 
that  in  their  suspected  brethren  devoutness 
and  the  love  of  truth  were  happily  matched, 
and  that  some  critical  workers  at  any  rate 
were  as  zealous  for  religion,  and  in  their  own 
way  as  able  to  promote  it,  as  themselves. 
Upon  this,  the  suspicions  of  the  clergy  were 
to  a  great  extent  allayed.  Injurious  words 
ceased  to  be  spoken,  and  in  many  quarters 
expositions  of  the  chief  current  results  of  Old 
Testament  criticism  were  received  with  favour 
or  indulgence. 

One  deficiency,  however,  there  was  on  the 
part  of  the  church-leaders.  No  desire,  so  far 
as  I  know,  was  expressed  for  a  continuation 
of  the  forward  movement  in  Old  Testament 
criticism  ;  and  as  for  New  Testament  criticism, 
it  was  only  referred  to  as  a  foe  to  be  repelled. 
In  our  church-congresses,  indeed,  we  heard 
from  time  to  time  that  the  Bible  had  no  cause 


Critics  and  Criticism  35 

to  dread  the  keenest  scrutiny.  But  in  spite  of 
this,  the  men  engaged  in  critical  work  were 
beset  with  pointed  exhortations  to  be  "  sober," 
"  cautious,"  "  moderate,"  and  even  "  reverent," 
as  if  a  true  Biblical  critic,  in  continual  con- 
verse with  holy  men  of  old,  and  in  constant 
view  of  the  most  marvellous  of  religious 
developments,  could  be  anything  but  reverent. 
The  result  has  been,  not  that  research  has 
altogether  avoided  the  more  delicate  problems, 
but  that  it  has  for  the  most  part  been  diverted 
to  what  are  considered  "safe"  departments, 
such  as  the  analysis  of  the  sources  of  the 
Hexateuch,  the  textual  criticism  of  the  New 
Testament,  and  the  literary  problem  of  the 
Synoptic  Gospels. 

To  me,  I  confess,  this  appears  like  unfaith- 
fulness to  our  vocation,  and  my  only  comfort 
is  that  people  are  beginning  to  find  out  that 
one  at  least  of  the  three  departments  men- 
tioned is  by  no  means  "  safe."  And  if  even 
the  textual  critic  of  the  New  Testament 
cannot  be  always  "  sober  "  and  "  cautious,"  still 


36  Bible  Problems 

less  can  the  historical  critic  accomplish  his 
task  with  such  a  slender  moral  equipment. 
Reverent  he  ought  to  be,  but  neither  "  sober  " 
nor  "  cautious  "  nor  "  moderate  "  fitly  describes 
his  character.  Perhaps  "  moderate "  is  the 
worst  epithet  of  the  three,  for  it  suggests  that 
critical  truth  is  a  mean  between  two  extremes. 
There  is  indeed  a  true  "moderation,"  but 
alas !  it  is  not  often  seen.  To  apply  Isaiah's 
words,^  it  is  "  as  the  shaking  of  an  olive  tree, 
two  or  three  berries  in  the  top  of  the  upper- 
most bough,  four  or  five  in  the  outmost 
fruitful  branches  thereof." 

What,  then,  is  the  higher,  or  rather  let  me 
say,  the  historical  critic  of  the  Bible  ?  This  is 
how  I  at  least  imagine  him.  He  is  not  only 
reverent  to  the  highest  human  ideal,  but  eager 
to  throw  any  fresh  light  that  he  can  on  its 
forms  of  expression.  He  is  not  easily  baffled, 
but  earnest  and  thorough,  and,  in  the  use 
of  his  methods,  resourceful.  If  he  makes  a 
mistake — for  in  new  fields  some  errors  are 
1  Isaiah  xvii.  6,  Authorized  Version. 


Critics  and  Criticism  37 

inevitable — he  acknowledges  it.  He  does  not 
covet  the  praise  of  stability  and  consistency. 
Stable  he  is,  and  consistent  he  is,  but  not  as 
"the  man  in  the  street"  would  define  those 
terms.  His  consistency  lies  in  his  constant 
aim  to  penetrate  further  into  historical  truth.^ 
He  is  aware  indeed  that  some  of  his  historical 
problems  closely  touch  high  spiritual  truths, 
and  that  for  these  he  may  require  the  help  of 
psychological  students  of  religion.  But  he 
also  knows  that  with  such  aid  the  most  deli- 
cate problems  of  a  historical  religion  can  be 
rendered  harmless,  and  he  trusts  that  at  the 
right  time  the  manifest  truth,  which  will 
satisfy  the  modern  Christian  conscience  at  all 
points,  will  reward  faithful  seekers. 

1  The  meaning  of  this  is  that  development  and  pro- 
gress are  inseparable  from  research  ;  they  are  indeed  part 
of  the  idea.  It  will  be  no  slight  step  forward  if  the 
student  thoroughly  takes  this  in.  There  is  perhaps  at 
present  not  enough  sympathy  between  researchers  and 
students  in  general.  In  the  future  one  hopes  that  this 
defect  may  be  remedied,  and  that  the  advanced  student 
may  have  more  connected  guidance  in  the  paths  of  re- 
search. 


38  Bible  Problems 

If  anyone  here  should  be  of  opinion  that  no 
such  resolute  and  resourceful  critic  has  yet 
appeared  among  us/  the  implied  censure,  even 
if  excessive,  might  not  be  unwholesome.  The 
present  speaker  at  any  rate  claims  no  exemp- 
tion from  rebuke.  He  longs  to  be  judged 
himself  by  a  higher  standard,  and  regret- 
fully admits  that  our  criticism  of  the  Bible 
has  not,  in  all  its  departments,  aimed  high 
enough.  He  confesses  that  he  feels  some  pain 
at  what  he  sees  around  him,  and,  feeling  the 
difficulty  of  dispelling  the  timidity  of  his 
colleagues,  is  tempted  to  envy  those  who  have 
an  easier  lot. 

This  human  infirmity  may  perhaps  be  shared 
by  some  in  this  audience.  For  though,  pro- 
bably enough,  no  one  here  would  like  to 
denominate  himself  a  critic,  it  is  certain  that 

^  Had  Robertson  Smith  lived,  and  been  able  to  adapt 
himself  to  changed  and  changing  circumstances,  it  is 
permissible  to  believe  that  he  might  have  been  such  a 
critic  for  our  time.  I  think  he  would  have  laughed  at  the 
idea  of  his  critical  views  becoming  one  day  represented  as 
a  standard  of  orthodoxy. 


Critics  and  Criticism  39 

every  thoughtful  Churchman  ought  to  have  a 
sense  of  responsibihty  for  the  position  of  criti- 
cism. Perhaps  the  chief  reason  why  most 
EngUsh  critics  to-day  are  so  backward  is, — 
that  the  community  at  large  is  so  unexacting. 
Those  who  hope  that  they  are  called  to  be 
critics  give  so  little,  because  the  public  which 
judges  them  appears  to  ask  so  little.  Doubt- 
less they  ought  not  to  need  an  external 
stimulus ;  still,  they  do.  And  so  it  may  well 
be  that  some  of  those  who,  though  not  critics 
themselves,  yet  sympathize  with  critics,  and 
see  the  danger  of  the  situation  and  their  own 
responsibility,  may  be  tempted  to  give  way 
to  despondency. 

The  present  speaker  asks  leave  to  mention  a 
fine  poem  in  the  Lyra  Apostolica  by  which  he 
has  been  helped.  It  is  by  Richard  Hurrell 
Froude,  that  old  High  Churchman  (1803- 
1836),  who  died  early,  and  in  his  lifetime  was 
Newman's  closest  friend,  and  it  consists  of  an 
imaginary  colloquy  between  Old  Self  and  New 
Self.     New  Self  notices  the  "  downward  look 


40  Bible  Problems 

and  sadly  dreaming  eye"  of  Old  Self,  as  he 
sits  upon  a  "  sea-girt  rock " ;  and  asks  the 
cause.  Old  Self  says  that  he  mourns  the 
bygone  days  of  childish  simpUcity.  To  this 
New  Self  replies, — 

Mourn'st  thou,  poor  soul  ?  and  thou  would' st  yet 
Call  back  the  things  which  shall  not,  cannot  be  ? 

Heaven  must  be  won,  not  dreamed  ;  thy  task  is  set, 
Peace  was  not  made  for  earth,  nor  rest  for  thee. 

Let  us  drink  in  the  spirit  of  these  words. 
Away  with  all  depressing  regrets  for  the  by- 
gone days  of  ignorance  and  low  ideals  1  Let 
it  be  our  happiness  to  "  spend  and  be  spent " 
in  the  cause  of  progress  !  "  Doth  not  wisdom 
cry,  and  understanding  put  forth  her  voice," 
calling  upon  her  friends  to  awake?  For  the 
voice  of  suspicion  and  denunciation  begins  to 
be  heard  again  on  the  other  side.  A  more 
"  free  "  and  "  untrammelled  "  inquiry  may  be 
demanded  by  investigators  of  nature,^  but  the 
right,  the  duty,  of  a  truly  progressive  criticism 
of  the  Bible  is  denied.     Apologetic  considera- 

1  Sir  Michael  Foster,   The  Nineteenth  Century  and  After^ 
May  1904. 


Critics  and  Criticism  41 

tions  are  brought  in  to  limit  our  freedom. 
The  Fourth  Gospel  must  be  the  work  of  the 
Apostle  John,  and  must  be  in  the  main 
historical,  because  the  inherited  orthodoxy- 
requires  it.  Discrimination  between  different 
kinds  of  narratives  in  the  Gospels  is  dis- 
couraged, because  of  the  inherited,  uncritical 
interpretation  of  ancient  Church  formulae. 
And  though  some  Churchmen  may  be  more 
tolerant  than  others,  yet  even  these  would 
prefer  that  a  keener  criticism  of  the  Bible 
should  be  left  to  foreigners.  The  Church  of 
England,  say  they,  is  not  to  be  a  laboratory 
for  bold  critical  experiments,  but  a  practical 
institution  for  coping  with  sin  and  wickedness. 
And  so,  partly  at  least,  the  Church  of  Christ 
must  everywhere  be.  Most  warmly  do  I 
sympathize  with  those  worthy  opponents  who 
speak  evil  of  Biblical  criticism,  but  do  noble 
work  in  saving  souls.  But  I  maintain  that 
the  national  Church  is  not  merely  a  hospital 
for  the  morally  sick,  but  a  union  of  the  lovers 
of  a  high  and  comprehensive  ideal,  and  that 


42  Bible  Problems 

our  Church  will  not  deserve  its  position  unless 
it  devotes  itself  to  the  ideal,  not  only  of 
goodness  but  of  historical  truth.  I  respect- 
fully entreat  leaders  of  the  Church  not  to 
hinder  our  scholars  from  doing  their  work 
thoroughly.  Either  let  there  be  no  criticism 
at  all  of  the  form  of  holy  scriptures  and 
church-formulse — a  fatal  mistake,  doubtless, — 
or  let  it  be  a  genuine,  unrestricted,  truly 
complete  one.  Biblical  criticism  has  been 
admitted  into  the  Church;  let  Churchmen 
recognize  it  as  one  of  God's  gifts,  and  seek  to 
make  the  most  of  it.  I  admit  that  criticism 
has  much,  very  much,  to  receive, — for  its 
professors  have  to  learn  what  vital  Christianity 
is  from  the  Christian  Church,— but  surely  it 
has  much,  very  much,  to  give,  for  the  more 
historical  insight  the  Church  acquires,  the 
better  it  will  be  able  to  re-interpret  its 
doctrines,  and,  if  need  be,  to  reformulate  them. 
It  may  be  true,  as  some  friend  of  M.  Loisy 
has  said  {Church  Quarterly  Review,  April 
1904),    that    the    twofold    character    of    the 


Critics  and  Criticism  43 

Church  of  England  (at  once  Catholic  and 
Evangelical)  makes  it  more  difficult  for  its 
members  to  adjust  the  relations  of  criticism 
and  faith  than  for  Roman  Catholics  ;  but  that 
should  only  make  us  Anglicans  more  eager 
to  harmonize  those  two  great  theories — the 
Catholic  and  the  Evangelical — on  the  basis  of 
an  improved  psychology  of  religion  and  a  free 
Biblical  criticism.  The  Anglican  communion 
would  then  perhaps  have  a  better  chance  of 
recovering  lost  members  and  winning  new 
friends.  It  would  then  perhaps  acquire  a 
fresh  right  to  call  itself  at  once,  in  a  modern 
sense  of  the  good  old  words,  National, 
Catholic,  and  Evangelical. 

If  nothing  less  than  this  is  their  ultimate 
object,  may  not  educated  Churchmen,  both 
leaders  and  followers,  rightly  be  asked,  not 
only  not  to  hinder  the  work  of  Biblical 
criticism,  but  also  to  take  note  of  and 
encourage  its  progress  ?  This  means,  not 
merely  reading  more  or  less  carefully  such 
books   as   register  what  is  called  the  average 


44  Bible  Problems 

opinion  of  scholars — an  opinion  which  repre- 
sents rather  yesterday  than  to-day,  or  at  least 
a  to-day,  which  even  while  we  speak  is 
becoming  yesterday, — but  following  with  keen 
curiosity  those  far-reaching  researches  which 
will  take  a  long  time  yet  to  bring  to  their 
completion.  I  am  not  of  course  suggesting  a 
degree  of  thoroughness  in  study  impossible 
for  most  practical  men,  nor  do  I  desire  any 
injustice  to  what  is  called  "moderate"  criti- 
cism. My  contention  is  that  just  as  all  true 
students  of  religious  history  ought  to  know 
something  of  more  than  one  religion,  so  all 
true  Bible  students  ought  to  know  something 
of  more  than  one  criticism ;  but  I  would  add 
to  this  the  thesis  that  if  moderate  criticism 
demands  no  slight  degree  of  attention,  that 
criticism  which  is  in  the  van  of  progress 
demands  still  more,  because  the  task  of  as- 
similating it  is  so  difficult.  A  little  know- 
ledge is  surely  not  a  dangerous  thing,  unless 
we  imagine  it  to  be  greater  than  it  is,  and 
proceed  to  set  all  the  rest  of  the  world  right 


Critics  and  Criticism  45 

on  the  strength  of  it.  It  is  distinctly  worth 
your  while  to  learn  from  those  English  and 
foreign  critics  who,  with  due  deliberation, 
question  and  to  some  extent  reconstruct 
traditional  history.  And  if  you  will  only 
put  aside  what  prejudiced  critics  have  said 
against  Winckler  or  Van  Manen,  or,  to 
mention  a  far  more  sympathetic  and  finely 
tempered  innovator,  Alfred  Loisy,  you  will 
find  that  from  each  in  turn  you  can  gather 
precious  instruction,  even  if  you  have  a 
personal  preference  for  Kautzsch  ^  or  Harnack 
or  our  own  much-respected  William  Sanday. 
For  of  none  of  the  advanced  critics  to  whom 
I  have  referred  can  it  prudently  or  fairly  be 
said,   "  He   does   not  count." 

It  is  true,  as  the  late  Professor  Hort — fitly 
named,  I  think,  with  Sanday — so  finely  re- 
marked, that  "  an  implicit   confidence   in  all 

1  I  mention  Kautzsch,  not  merely  out  of  personal  regard, 
but  because  to  my  surprise  the  editor  of  the  Dictionary  of 
the  Bible  has  intrusted  the  article  "  History  of  the  Religion 
of  Israel  '*  in  his  extra  volume  to  this  valued  contributor  to 
the  Encyclopaedia  Bihlica. 


46  Bible  Problems 

truth,  a  keen  sense  of  its  variety,  and  a 
deliberate  dread  of  shutting  out  truth  as  yet 
unknown  are  no  security  against  some  of  the 
wandering  hghts  that  are  apt  to  beguile  a 
critic."  But  this  in  itself  wise  caution,  belongs 
more  strictly  to  Holland  or  to  Switzerland 
than  to  England.  If  indeed  we  happen  to 
be  thinking  of  criticism  generally,  we  may 
appropriately  enough  address  it  to  ourselves, 
but  we  "  cribb'd,  cabin'd,  and  confin'd  "  English 
scholars  can  scarcely  be  held  to  be  in  any 
special  need  of  it.  Our  own  chief  danger 
obviously  is,  not  from  "  wandering  hghts,"  but 
from  a  paralysing  dread  of  new  truths ;  and 
the  case  of  innovation,  if  (contrary  to  all  pro- 
bability) such  really  exists,  is  not  that  of 
scholars  starting  out  on  their  adventures 
without  acquaintance  with  the  pitfalls  around 
them,  and  untouched  by  the  moderating  in- 
fluences of  ecclesiastical  and  academical  tradi- 
tion. Not  such,  most  surely,  is  the  case,  even 
if,  leaving  our  own  country,  you  think  of 
Hugo  Winckler;  for  great,  far  greater  than 


Critics  and   Criticism  47 

one  might  suppose,  is  the  power  of  the  tradi- 
tions of  the  scholar's  craft  in  the  universities 
of  Germany.^  But  if  you  have  British  inno- 
vators in  your  mind,  it  must  be  the  case  of 
men  who  have  felt  all  those  influences  in  the 
political  and  ecclesiastical  atmosphere  which 
make  so  strongly  for  compromise — men  who 
have  heard  every  day  those  cries,  "  Be  sober, 
be  moderate,"  which  resound  throughout  our 
own  Church,  and  indeed  throughout  the 
Christian  communities  of  our  land.  And 
considering  how  slight  is  the  encouragement 
to  young  scholars  to  leave  the  beaten  track, 
the  presumption  is  that  any  such  case  of 
innovation  is  that  of  men  who  have  a  long 
development  behind  them, — of  men  who  have 
tried  those  methods  which  the  younger 
scholars  extol  so  much,  and  found  them   in- 

^  I  have  only  mentioned  Winckler,  because  he  alone  of 
the  innovating  critics  referred  to  has  a  post  in  a  German 
university.  Schmiedel,  however,  though  a  professor  in 
Switzerland,  was  trained  in  Germany,  and  has  a  truly 
German  fear  of  extremes.  Van  Manen  and  Loisy  would 
require  separate  study — a  study  which  would  cause  me  to 
digress  too  far  from  my  present  theme. 


48  Bible  Problems 

valuable  up  to  a  certain  point,  and  then  useless 
and  misleading.  It  will  be  the  case  of  men 
who  have  known  all  that  most  "  moderate  " 
scholars  can  have  learned,  and  have  given  it 
the  fullest  trial,  of  men  who  have  looked 
before  them,  and  profited  by  the  newer  aids, 
while  strictly  "  moderate "  scholars  were  still 
afraid  to  run  risks,  and  to  strike  out  from  the 
shore.  It  will  be  the  case  of  those  who  to-day 
see  such  scholars  keeping  aloof  from  the 
hardest  problems,  or  if  exceptionally  they 
approach  them,  arriving  at  unsatisfactory  re- 
sults, because  they  are  without  the  necessary 
new  methods,  and  the  experience  out  of  which 
the  discovery  of  those  new  methods  proceeds. 
It  will  be  the  case  of  those  who  are  not 
indeed  perfect  critics,  self-sufficient  and  infal- 
lible, but  who  are  at  anyrate  qualified  to  lead, 
and  to  cope  with  difficulties.  At  the  same 
time,  the  innovators,  if  they  exist,  will  be  men 
who  decline  to  be  condemned  on  utterly  false 
grounds  by  scholars  who  have  not  taken  the 
trouble  to  understand  either  their  principles  or 


Critics  and  Criticism  49 

their  methods,  and  who  would  themselves 
have  to  be  condemned  if  the  same  treatment 
were  measured  out  to  them.  For  there  is  no 
scholar,  however  able,  who  could  not  be, 
metaphorically,  cut  to  pieces,  if  like  Dante's 
friend  Sigieri  ^  he  ''  syllogized  invidious  truths," 
and  represented  a  point  of  view  which  was  not 
that  of  his  critic. 

That  the  "  advanced  "  critics,  both  German 
and  English,  have  their  faults,  who  would 
dream  of  denying  ?  But  so  too  have  our 
"  moderate  "  critics,  though  the  public  seldom 
hears  of  them.  And  I  plead  that  the  real  or 
supposed  faults  of  each  (how  easy  it  is  to  sup- 
pose faults !)  should  be  judged  considerately, 
and  without  controversial  bitterness,  remem- 
bering the  many-sidedness  of  truth.  If  the 
"  advanced  "  critics  sometimes  go  too  fast,  it 
is  because  they  have  to  make  up  for  lost  time, 
and  for  the  languor  of  others,  and  next — so  at 
least  I  hope — because  they  have  a  strong  faith 
in  the  power  of  the  Church  to  adapt  herself  to 

^  Dante,  Paradiso,  canto  x.^  lines  136-138. 


50  Bible  Problems 

new  readings  of  history,  and  lastly,  because 
they  look  forward  to  a  day  in  which  Biblical 
criticism,  though  not  entirely  broken  off,  will 
be  less  insistent  in  its  claims/  And  if  the 
"  moderate  "  critics  go  too  slowly,  it  is  partly 
because  they  value  tradition  as  a  starting- 
point  so  highly  that  they  think  it  unsafe  to  go 
too  far,  or  at  least  too  fast  from  it,  and  partly 
because,  unlike  M.  Loisy,  they  consider  that 
strict  moderation  in  criticism  is  requisite  for 
the  welfare  of  religion.  One  may  be  sure 
that  if  they  cultivate  "  moderation,"  it  is  not 
merely  because  of  the  voices  outside  which 
call  for  it,  but  because  of  a  warning  oracle 
within  their  own  conscience. 

I  could  not  therefore  propose  to  you  either 
to  ignore  (this  would  be  a  sin),  or  to  oppose 
(this  would  be  a  mistake),  such  truly  honest 
scholars,  but  I  do  advise  the  student  not  to 
listen  to  them  when  they  seek  to  keep  him 
from  reading  books  which  do  not  please  them. 

^  See  "  An  Appeal  for  a  Higher  Exegesis/'  by  the 
present  writer,  Expositor,  January  1904, 


Critics  and  Criticism  51 

I  believe  that  their  motives  are  good,  but  this 
makes  it  all  the  more  imperative  to  warn  you 
that  too  many  of  these  scholars  have  become 
the  champions  of  a  new  and  highly  exclusive 
critical  orthodoxy.  We  do  not  want  a  new 
Church-militant,  whose  foes  are  not  sin  and 
wickedness,  but  critical  innovation.  I  wish 
that  I  could  be  the  voice,  and  nothing  but  the 
voice,  of  an  effective  counter-influence.  But 
for  the  sake  both  of  a  distinctly  progressive 
scholarship  and  of  a  more  defensible  theology, 
I  am  bound,  not  only  to  be  a  voice,  but  to 
defend  the  representatives  of  the  new  critical 
movement,  whether  in  England  or  in  Ger- 
many, against  what  has  been  unwisely  called 
a  "necessary  hostility."  This  1  propose  to 
do,  not  by  retaliation,  but  by  a  friendly 
suggestion  preparatory  to  my  exposition  of 
new  facts.  It  seems  to  me  that  I  can  thus 
best  excuse  what  some  may  think  the  boldness 
of  this  Lecture,  and  also  promote  better  rela- 
tions between  two  classes  of  scholars  who 
cannot  be  separated  without  mutual  injury. 


52  Bible  Problems 

The  suggestion,  or  rather  offer,  which  I  have 
to  make,  and  for  the  general  character  of 
which  I  am  sure  in  advance  of  your  support, 
partakes  of  the  nature  of  a  "  self-denying 
ordinance."  It  is  briefly  this.  Let  there  be 
mutual  tolerance  and  recognition  throughout 
the  commonwealth  of  Bible  students.  On  the 
one  hand  let  all  respect  be  shown  to  Biblical 
scholars  of  what  may  be  called  a  liberal- 
conservative  type, — Old  Testament  men  who 
have  absorbed  much  of  the  criticism  of  the 
last  century,  but  whose  aim  or  instinct  is  not 
to  go  very  much  in  advance  of  Church  opinion, 
and  New  Testament  men,  who  assume  less 
than  their  confreres  have  done  of  previous 
criticism,  and  might  sometimes  be  taken  for 
conservatives,  but  who  are  in  their  own  way 
critics,  and  undoubtedly  desire  progress.  Let 
it  become  a  rule  that  no  member  of  any 
section  of  the  more  advanced  school  of  critics 
shall  decline  to  receive  help  from  any  sugges- 
tion of  his  more  conservative  brethren  which 
implies  accurate  information  as  to  the  facts, 


Critics  and  Criticism  53 

and  does  sufficient  justice  to  his  point  of  view.^ 
But  on  the  other  hand,  let  there  be  a  place  of 
equal  honour  for  that  broader  school,^  whose 
ideal  I  endeavoured  to  sketch  not  long  ago. 
Let  there  be  no  talk  on  the  part  of 
"  moderate "  scholars  in  their  magazines  of 
having  to  assume  an  attitude  of  opposition  to 
any  of  these  critics,  in  order  to  exclude  in- 
fluences adverse,  as  they  think,  to  their  own 
on  the  minds  of  students.  And,  last  not 
least,  must  I  not  ask  that  in  their  critical 
and  exegetical  writings  there  should  be  clear 
evidence  of  the  recognition  of  new  problems, 
and  of  an  endeavour  to  enter  into  the  critical 
point  or  points  of  view  of  their  bolder 
colleagues  ?  For  if  this  be  omitted,  what- 
ever the  branch  of  study  may  be,  but  more 
especially  in  Bible  study,  there  is  sure  to  be  a 

1  I  hope  I  may  assume  that  Professor  Winckler,  free  of 
speech  as  he  is,  would  not  object^  if  German  circumstances 
required,  to  adopt  this  rule. 

2  In  this  school  T  should  like  to  include  all  who  are 
definitely  striving  towards  a  broader  point  of  view,  even  if 
in  some  respects  they  have  not  shaken  off  old  prejudices. 


54  Bible  Problems 

failure  of  justice  and  a  check  to  progress  on 
the  part  of  the  adherents  of  the  older  and 
more  conservative  scholarship. 

Should  the  spirit  of  this  offer  (of  which  this 
audience  is  witness)  find  no  comprehension, 
the  prospect  which  I  at  least  see  before  us  is 
a  gloomy  one.  Progress  is  only  possible  in  a 
society  with  a  free  atmosphere,  and  such  an 
atmosphere  will  not,  in  the  case  supposed, 
exist  in  our  society.  Mutual  toleration  and 
recognition,  fairness  to  all  those  who  differ 
from  us,  is  the  only  remedy  against  a  deaden- 
ing chill  to  progress,  and  such  toleration, 
fairness,  recognition  will  not  be  cultivated 
among  us. 

But  why,  I  ask,  should  this  climax  of  misery 
be  reached  ?  Every  competent  scholar  knows 
that  the  "  sober "  criticism  of  to-day  was 
considered  "  extravagant  "  yesterday,  and  that 
there  are  problems  enough,  both  small  and 
great,  in  Biblical  study,  the  surface  of  which 
has  at  present  barely  been  grazed,  or  which 
at   best   have   been   very   imperfectly   solved. 


Critics  and  Criticism  55 

Why  refuse  any  offer  of  help  ?  Is  there  any- 
one who  ventures  to  assert  that  there  is  a 
fundamental  difference  between  the  schools  of 
criticism,  such  as  that  which  exists  between 
mediaeval  and  modern  philosophy  or  science  ? 
Surely  not.  Both  schools  in  all  their  sections 
affirm  with  equal  earnestness  the  continuity 
of  critical  progress ;  and  the  members  of 
the  newer  school,  however  divided  in  many 
respects,  agree  in  showing  a  capacity  for 
opening  new  problems  which  science  cannot 
dispense  with.  If  some  impetuous  persons,  in 
their  extravagant  addiction  to  "  moderate " 
criticism,  have  decreed  a  partition  wall  be- 
tween the  schools,  cannot  those  who  are  truly 
"  sober "  critics  intervene  to  oppose  this  ? 
They  cannot  venture  to  decline  all  responsi- 
bility for  the  present  state  of  things,  and  I 
indulge  the  hope  that  they  may  do  their 
utmost  to  convince  their  unwise  colleagues  of 
the  "  error  of  their  way." 


PART   II 

My  fellow-Churchmen !  For  the  last  few 
minutes  I  have  addressed  myself  not  only  to 
you,  but  to  scholars  at  a  distance,  in  the  hope 
of  removing  ominous  misunderstandings.  I 
rejoice  now  to  be  able  to  turn  to  my  special 
theme,  but  I  rejoice  with  trembling.  First, 
because  there  is  good  reason  to  doubt  whether 
the  Anglican  Church  in  general  is  quite  as 
conscious  as  the  mediaeval  Church  of  the 
West  certainly  was,  of  the  necessity  and 
innocence  of  free  investigation  within  its 
borders ;  and  next,  because,  however  great 
the  pains  an  investigator  may  take  in  dealing 
with  new  facts,  he  is  sure  to  make  mistakes. 
I  have,  however,  endeavoured  to  show,  not  for 
the  first   time,   how    deep    is    my  love   and 

56 


New  Testament  57 

reverence  for  the  Church  of  Christ ;  so  much, 
I  am  sure,  will  be  generally  recognized.  As 
for  my  mistakes,  I  do  not,  from  my  own  point 
of  view,  think  that  they  can  be  very  dangerous. 
All  is  not  wrong,  and  my  mistakes  will  be 
sedulously  corrected,  as  they  may  appear. 
Sympathy,  not  censoriousness,  is  desirable  in 
my  critics,  for  as  the  great  mediaeval  poet 
says  in  another  context: — 

To  stem  this  sea  may  no  light  bark  essay. 

Or  careless  pilot  who  his  toil  would  spare ; 
Since  deep  the  daring  prow  must  cleave  its  way.^ 

I  begin  with  the  New  Testament.  The 
facts  of  which  I  shall  speak  have  not  been 
discovered  by  myself,  nor  shall  I  always  have 
something  original  to  say  concerning  them. 
But,  if  I  am  not  much  mistaken,  they  are  still 
far  too  little  known  and  understood.  In  one 
case  I  seem  to  have  a  special  right  to  say  this, 
because  I  have  long  been  occupied  with  the 
same   class    of   phenomena  in   another  field. 

1  Dante,  Paradiso,  canto  xxiii.,  lines  67-69  (Wright's 
translation). 


58  Bible  Problems 

You   will    pardon    me    if    I    make    a   slight 
digression  in  explanation  of  this. 

It  appears  from  certain  parts  of  the  Old 
Testament  that  various  popular  Jewish  beliefs 
are  closely  connected  with  a  widespread 
Oriental  mythology.  Winckler  has,  I  grant, 
exaggerated  the  amount  of  evidence  for  this 
in  the  Hebrew  Bible.  This  arises  partly 
from  his  absorption  in  an  elaborate  theory 
respecting  the  mythological  view  of  the  world 
current  in  Babylonia  and  in  the  Babylonian 
sphere  of  influence,  and  partly  from  his  in- 
sufficient recognition  of  the  redactional  and 
transcriptional  changes  which  the  original 
Hebrew  documents  have  undergone.  Still, 
all  deductions  made,  the  Old  Testament 
evidence  does  appear  to  be  not  inconsiderable. 
The  early  chapters  of  Genesis,  for  instance,^ 
contain  accounts  of  the  Cosmogony  and  the 

1  Mr  W.  H.  Mallock,  in  the  Nineteenth  Century,  Sept. 
1904j  speaks  of  these  chapters  as  ^discredited."  Why 
should  myths,  or  narratives  based  on  myths,  be  discredited  } 
Myths  are  very  fascinating  and  instructive  things,  but  need 
to  be  approached  with  imaginative  sympathy. 


New  Testament  59 

Deluge,  which  are  semi-mythical  in  form,  and 
ultimately  of  Babylonian  origin.  So  much, 
I  suppose,  apart  from  the  word  "semi- 
mythical,"  would  be  universally  accepted. 
But  we  may  quite  safely  go  further,  and  assert 
that  details  of  other  quasi-historic  narratives, 
as  well  as  prophetical  and  poetical  phrases  and 
forms  of  belief  in  the  Old  Testament,  are 
semi-mythical,  and  show  the  direct  or  indirect 
influence  of  Babylonia.  In  saying  this  I  do 
not  deny  the  idiosyncrasy  of  the  Jewish 
religion,  nor  do  I  admit  the  vulgar  identifica- 
tion of  myth  with  fable.^  1  only  affirm  that 
certain  elements  in  the  Israelitish  records, 
though  sufficiently^  fused  with  the  central 
religious  principles,  were  borrowed  from  a 
people  of  higher  antiquity  and  prestige,  and 
of  richer  and  more  luxuriant  imagination. 
It  has  been  my  lot  to  be  one  of  the  pioneers 

1  In  defence  of  the  use  of  the  word  "myth/'  see 
Lobstein,  The  Virgin-Birth  of  Christ  (Crown  Theological 
Library),  page  128,  top,  "Myth,  no  less  than  history,"  etc. 

2  For  examples  of  an  incomplete  fusion  see  Gen.  vi.  1-4, 
and  Rev.  xii.  1. 


6o  Bible  Problems 

in  the  work  of  proving  this.  It  was  not  my 
wish  to  imply  that  the  Hebraized  myths,  or 
semi-myths,  were  from  a  rehgious  point  of 
view  merely  on  a  level  with  their  Oriental 
originals.  But  I  certainly  did  mean  that  there 
were  points  in  Oriental  religious  systems 
with  which  the  Israelites  had  some  degree 
of  sympathy.  For  religion  being,  from  the 
ancient  point  of  view,  a  part  of  culture — 
indeed  its  very  centre  and  origin — those  who 
were  affected  by  any  external  culture  could 
not  but  fall  under  the  influence  of  the  ac- 
companying religion.  And  though  I  could 
not  admit  that  the  phrase  "  symbolic  narrative  " 
was  a  better  or  truer  expression  than  "  myth," 
I  certainly  did  hold  that  adapted  myths,  like 
those  of  the  Cosmogony  and  the  Deluge, 
and  of  Jonah  in  the  "great  fish,"  were  the 
repositories  of  spiritual  truths,  which,  in  an 
abstract  form,  could  not  have  been  conceived 
by  Jewish  minds,  much  less  have  commanded 
general  attention. 

1  will  now  proceed  to  say  why  I  hold  that 


New  Testament  6i 

facts  of  Oriental  archaeology  (including  myth- 
ology) may  hopefully  be  brought  into  con- 
nexion with  the  New  Testament.  My  reason 
is  that  a  careful  study  reveals  in  some  places 
considerable  similarity  between  the  New 
Testament  and  the  Old  in  the  nature  of  their 
contents.  There  should  at  any  rate  be  nothing 
in  this  to  shock  any  conservative  theologian. 
It  is  true,  there  is  much  greater  variety  in  the 
Old  Testament  than  in  the  New,  but  the  form 
and  substance  of  much  that  the  Old  Testament 
contains  is  parallel  to  that  of  much  that  is 
contained  in  the  New.  If  this  is  the  case, 
there  is  no  apparent  reason  why  the  criticism 
of  the  New  Testament  should  not  be  brought 
more  into  line  with  that  of  the  Old,  and  why, 
in  our  criticism,  we  should  reject  the  aid  of 
Oriental  archaeology.  I  do  not,  of  course, 
undervalue  the  help  of  advanced  textual 
criticism,  the  greatest  achievements  of  which, 
however,  are  reserved  for  the  future.  I  also 
fully  admit  that  discoveries  of  fragments  of 
Gospels,  and  of  Logia  of  Jesus,  as   well  as 


62  Bible  Problems 

of  other  unimagined  treasures,  must,  when 
critically  treated,  contribute  to  the  solution  of 
interesting  problems.  Still,  for  some  of  the 
most  delicate  and  important  problems  the 
critic  will  have  to  become  to  a  certain  extent 
an  archaeologist,  and  even,  to  speak  more 
precisely,  a  mythologist.  And  1  submit  that 
the  form  of  the  most  peculiar  and  difficult 
New  Testament  statements  can  only  be 
accounted  for  by  the  newly-discovered  fact 
of  the  all-pervading  influence  of  Oriental  and 
more  particularly  Babylonian  and  Persian 
systems  of  belief. 

Here  the  objector  may  perhaps  ask,  "Are 
you  not  inviting  us  to  empty  the  New 
Testament  of  its  special  significance  ?  If  you 
touch  the  form  of  a  New  Testament  state- 
ment, must  you  not  jeopardize  the  contents  ? 
Are  not  form  and  contents,  here  at  least, 
inseparably  united  ? "  I  reply  that  in  the 
case  of  the  Old  Testament  I  have  not  given 
such  a  proof  of  spiritual  dulness  as  the  objector 
supposes  me  to  be  giving  in  the  case  of  the 


New  Testament  63 

New.  The  significance  of  the  most  peculiar 
and  difficult  statements  in  the  Old  Testament 
is  not  impaired,  but  rather  brought  into  fuller 
relief,  by  the  exhibition  of  the  semi-mythic 
character  of  the  form.  Why  should  it  be 
otherwise  in  the  case  of  the  New?  Why 
should  it  be  denied  that  the  form  and  the 
essential  contents  of  New  Testament  state- 
ments can  be  distinguished,  through  the 
harmonious  co-operation  of  two  classes  of 
critics,  one  literary  and  historical,  the  other 
philosophical  or  psychological?  It  appears 
to  me  that  scepticism  as  to  the  fundamental 
truths  of  Christianity  partly  arises  from  our 
having  insisted  on  the  inseparableness  of  the 
form  and  the  spiritual  contents  of  certain  New 
Testament  statements.  It  was  inevitable  to 
insist  upon  this  at  the  time  when  our  Church 
formularies  were  compiled ;  it  is  neither 
necessary  nor  judicious  to  do  so  in  our  day. 
May  our  rulers  be  guarded  from  rash  action ! 
On  this  point  it  may  be  helpful  to  Anglicans 
if  I  quote  the  opinion  of  an  earnest  liberal 


64 


Bible  Problems 


Roman  Catholic — the  Baron  von  Hiigel — as 
given  in  the  following  passage,  though  most 
of  us  perhaps  may  use  different  language  as 
to  the  relation  of  "  the  Church  "  to  Christian 
experience. 

The  idea  of  the  Incarnation  ^  supposes  and  contains^  on 
the  one  hand,  a  Hmited  series  of  historical  phenomena ; 
on  the  other,  an  unhmited  reality  and  power  which  can 
be  reached  and  which  communicates  itself  to  us  across 
these  phenomena.  This  reality  draws  our  souls  to  itself, 
by  all  that  is  deepest  and  most  inalienable  within  us.  It 
is  this  that  our  experience  of  life,  aided  by  grace,  seeks 
and  wishes  for.  Doubtless,  the  act  of  faith  which  unites 
us  to  this  reality  does  not  apply  directly  to  the  phenomena, 
but  in  fine  it  supposes  them  and  makes  use  of  them. 
Taken  in  themselves,  these  historical  facts  belong  to 
history.  It  is  for  the  historical  methods  to  control  them. 
As  soon  as  this  preliminary  work  is  started,  the  Church 
intervenes,  and  puts  us  on  our  guard  against  all  a  priori 
rationalism.  Here  its  jurisdiction  is  only  indirect  and 
negative.  It  recognizes  itself  the  rights  and  the  necessity 
of  a  serious  critical  method,  and  it  interdicts  to  us  equally 
rationalism  or  scepticism  and  "fideism"  or  superstition  in 
the  manipulation  of  those  documents.  Let  criticism  do 
its  work.  Upon  its  completion  there  will  still  remain 
undebateable  facts  enough  for  the  needs  of  religion.     The 

1  It  is  time  for  historical  theologians  to  gird  themselves 
to  the  task  of  explaining  the  outward  form  of  the  great 
belief  referred  to.  How  came  the  words  kol  6  Aoyos  o-apf 
iyevero  (John  i.  14)  to  be  written  ? 


New  Testament  65 

Church  is  sure  of  this.  It  is  promised  to  her  by  her  faith, 
which  shows  to  her  in  God  the  unique  source  of  reason 
and  of  revelation,  of  nature  and  of  grace.  No  ingenuity 
of  apologetics  could  add  anything  to  that  faith, — a  faith 
which  hitherto  facts  have  always  justified. 

In  the  search  for,  and  the  study  of,  the  second  of  these 
elements  the  Church  enters  directly  on  the  scene,  being 
co-productor  and  guardian  of  Christian  experience  and 
mistress  of  truth.  There  her  jurisdiction  is  positive. 
There  an  indefinite  amount  of  growth  is  positive.  There 
an  indefinite  amount  of  growth  is  possible,  though  a  certain 
fixity  of  orientation  regulates  and  controls  that  growth. ^ 

Among  the  peculiar  and  difficult  New 
Testament  statements  to  which  I  have  re- 
ferred are  those  concerning  the  virgin-birth  of 
Jesus  Christ  (Matt.  i.  18,  cp.  vv.  23,  25)  and 
concerning  His  descent  into  the  nether  world 
(Matt.  xii.  40,  cp.  Rom.  x.  7,  Eph.  iv.  8-10, 
1  Pet.  iii.  18  ff,  [?],  Rev.  i.  18).  I  mention 
these  statements  in  the  first  instance  because 
they  strike  one  with  a  greater  sense  of  strange- 
ness than  does  the  statement  that  (omitting 
"the  third  day,"  because  the  time-reference 
belongs  rather  to  the  Descent)  Jesus  Christ 

^  Du  Christ  Etemel  et  de  nos  Christologies  successives,  par 
le  Baron  F.  de  Huegel.  Extrait  de  La  Quinzaine,  P'^  juin 
1904. 

5 


66  Bible  Problems 

rose  (or  was  raised)  from  the  dead,  or  the 
companion-statement  that  He  ascended  into 
heaven.  For  these  two  statements  may,  pro- 
visionally at  least,  be  represented  as  simple 
postulates  of  faith,^  but  it  cannot  plausibly  be 
regarded  as  a  postulate  of  unaided  faith  that 
the  Messiah  should  be  born  of  a  virgin,  or 
that  He  should  descend  for  three  (or  for  two) 
days  into  Shedl.  It  is  plain  therefore  that 
at  least  in  these  two  cases  every  truth-loving 
Churchman  must  admit  that  a  critical  ex- 
amination is  liable  to  no  objection  from  the 
side  of  faith.  1  shall  now  proceed  to  act  upon 
this  necessary  admission,  so  far  as  the  form  of 
a  lecture  permits.  At  the  same  time  I  would 
point  out  to  the  student  in  passing  that  there 
is  a  far  greater  subject  of  inquiry  than  this. 
What  we  most  keenly  wish  to  know  is,  not 
whether  the  two  statements  referred  to  can 
be  accounted  for  as  non-historical  or  extra- 
historical,  but  what  peculiarity  there  was  in 

^  Cp.  Lex  Orandiy  by  George  Tyrrell,  S.J.  (1903),  pp. 
182/:,  187  # 


New  Testament  67 

the  personality  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth  which  led 
early  disciples  to  identify  Him  with  the  Christ, 
the  Son  of  God,  and  by  which  we  too,  so  long 
afterwards,  are  led  habitually  to  call  Him  "  our 
Lord"  and  "our  Saviour."^ 

This,  and  nothing  but  this,  stands  by  itself  as 
the  most  fascinating  critical  problem  presented 
by  the  Gospels.  Why  did  an  early  Christian 
writer  say,  "  Every  spirit  which  confesses  that 
Jesus  Christ  is  come  in  the  flesh  is  born  of 
God  "  (1  John  iv.  2)  ?  And  again,  "Who  is  he 
that  conquers  the  world,  but  he  that  believes 
that  Jesus  is  the  Son  of  God  ? "  (1  John  v.  5) 

It  does  not,  however,  enter  into  my  present 
plan  to  discuss  this  high  theme.  I  am  con- 
cerned just  now  with  the  statement  of  the 
birth  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth  from  a  virgin.  This 
is  of  course  separate  from  the  question  as  to 
His  birthplace  and  His  family,  and  as  to  the 
reported   census  of  "  Cyrenius."     The  subject 

^  Cp.  Lobstein's  thrilling  statement  of  the  affirmations 
of  the  Christian  consciousness  {The  Virgin-Birth  of  Christ, 
pp.  96-100). 


68  Bible  Problems 

of  the  Virgin-Birth  has  a  distinctive  character 
of  its  own,  and  requires  to  be  taken  up  again 
from  a  special  point  of  view.  The  testimony 
to  the  fact  is  Umited  to  the  preludes  to  the 
First  and  Third  Gospels,  and  we  shall  find  that 
it  is  not  certain  that  the  testimony  of  our  Luke 
can  be  pressed.  This  limitation  is  of  itself  signi- 
ficant ;  I  mean  that  it  justifies  the  suspicion 
that  the  contents,  or  whatever  may  be  the 
kernel  of  the  contents,  cannot  be  regarded  as 
certainly  historical,  while  on  the  other  hand  it 
may  incline  us  to  attach  all  the  more  historical 
importance  (subject  to  further  investigation) 
to  the  unquestioned  part  of  those  two  Gospels. 
It  was  a  not  unreasonable  conjecture  of  conti- 
nental Baptist  theologians  in  the  sixteenth 
century  after  Christ  that  the  first  two  chapters 
of  Matthew  and  of  Luke  were  later  interpola- 
tions.^    The  silence  of  the  Gospels  apart  from 

1  Prof.  N.  Schmidt,  Ethical  Record  (New  York),  1904, 
p.  72.  It  may  be  objected  that  these  Baptists  were  hetero- 
dox. But  what  was  Spinoza  }  And  yet  who  denies  that 
his  doubts  as  to  the  Mosaic  authorship  of  the  Pentateuch 
were  well  founded  ? 


New  Testament  69 

these  preludes  cannot  easily  be  explained  away, 
but  it  is  not  my  present  object  to  consider  what 
inferences  follow.  I  desire  to  ascertain  whether 
the  statement  of  the  Virgin-Birth  cannot  be 
accounted  for  in  a  way  that  shall  not  shock 
religious  minds  with  a  conservative  bias.  Per- 
haps I  may  also  be  successful  in  giving  a  speci- 
men of  the  application  of  the  historical  method 
in  the  study  of  religious  traditions.  It  is  true 
that  in  doing  this  I  shall  have  to  become  a 
mythologist,  but  I  hope  that  my  own  efforts 
and  those  of  others  have  loosened  the  prejudice 
of  church-students  against  the  much  misunder- 
stood and  indispensable  word  ''myth."  And 
I  can  promise  that  by  no  careless  words  of 
mine  shall  the  wrench  which  always  attends 
separation  from  cherished  ideas  be  rendered 
more  painful. 

The  wrench  of  which  I  have  spoken  may  be 
mitigated  if  we  consider  how  well  the  idea  of 
a  mythic  origin  of  the  statement  in  question 
harmonizes  with  the  undeniable  central  fact, — 
that  long,  very  long,  before  the  birth  of  Christ, 


70  Bible  Problems 

the  Israelites  had  come  under  the  influence 
of  highly  developed  Oriental  cultures.  If  we 
consider  what  this  necessarily  involves,  we  shall 
see  that  this  influence  must  have  affected 
Israelitish  religion.  In  fact,  it  is  no  longer 
possible  to  doubt  that  the  Israelitish  view  of 
the  world  was  partly  coloured  by  portions  of 
an  elaborate  mythology  received  from  without, 
and  that  this  accounts  for  many  of  those 
strange  representations  which  we  meet  with 
from  time  to  time  in  the  Old  Testament 
writings.  It  is  true,  the  influence  of  different 
currents  of  culture-influences  upon  Palestine 
cannot  be  traced  in  an  orderly  historical 
manner.  But  one  point  at  least  is  certain, — 
that  the  influence  of  Oriental  forms  of  belief, 
Babylonian,  Egyptian,  Iranian,  was  specially 
strong  in  what  is  called,  conventionally,  the 
"  post-exilic  "  period.  Of  course,  the  religion 
of  Israel  reacted  against  these  influences,  the 
dangerousness  of  which  must  have  been 
apparent.  Consequently  the  things  which  were 
borrowed     were     more     or     less    completely 


New  Testament  71 

Hebraized,  and  rendered  innocuous.  This 
constant  pressure  of  Oriental  beliefs  on  the 
Israelitish  religion  is  abundantly  attested,  and 
its  traces  are  nowhere  more  visible  than  in  the 
apocalyptic  portions  of  Daniel,  and  in  the  Book 
of  Revelation.  Continued  study  of  these 
monuments  of  the  syncretistic  tendency  in 
Judaism  from  this  point  of  view  is  urgently 
needed. 

Let  me  say  at  once  that  the  historical  expla- 
nation of  the  statement  of  the  Virgin-Birth  of 
Christ  which  seems  to  me  to  be  the  most  pro- 
bable, is  that  it  originated,  not  in  a  mistrans- 
lation of  the  Immanuel-prophecy  (Isa.  vii.  14), 
which  is  Prof.  Harnack's  theory,^  nor,  immedi- 
ately, in  a  non-Jewish,  heathen  story,  adopted 
by  Gentile  Christians — a  story  such  as  those 
which  Mr  Hartland  in  his  Perseus'^  and  Prof. 

1  Histoid  of  Dogma  (Theological  Translation  Library), 
i.  100,  note  1.     See  Note  i.,  p.  191. 

2  Justin  Martyr  makes  a  significant  reference  to  this  myth 
{Apol.  i.  54,  Dial.  70).  It  would  lead  us  too  far  afield  to 
examine  the  story.  Note,  however,  that  Perseus  is  both 
virgin-bom  and  dragon-slayer. 


72  Bible  Problems 

Usener  in  his  Weihnachtsfest  have  collected  in 
abundance  (this  is  Prof.  Schmiedel's  theory^), 
but  in  a  story  of  non-Jewish  origin  current  in 
Jewish  circles,  and  borrowed  from  them  by 
certain  Jewish  Christians  (this  is  Prof.  Gunkel's 
view  ^).  The  second  theory  mentioned  is  there- 
fore only  wrong  in  stating  that  the  circles 
in  which  the  statement  of  the  Virgin-Birth  of 
Jesus  Christ  was  first  current  were  Gentile- 
Christian.  It  also  appears  to  me  a  mistake 
to  institute  too  wide  a  search  for  parallels  ; 
a  narrower  range  of  comparison  may  give  us 
clearer  results.  The  parallels  that  we  should 
most  desire  to  get  are — first,  Arabian,  because  of 
Israel's  early  connexion  with  Arabia,  and  next, 
Babylonian,  Egyptian,  and  Persian,  because 
almost  always  Babylon,  and  in  the  later  period 
Egypt   and   Persia   also,  were  most  likely  to 

^  Encyclopaedia  Bihlica,  '^Mary/'  i.,  §  l6. 

2  Zum  religions geschichtlichen  Verst'dndniss  des  N.T,,  1903^ 
pp.  68  y.  Mythologizing  conceptions  in  relation  to  Jesus 
Christ  were  not,  Gunkel  says,  due  to  the  later  Gentile 
Christianity,  but  were  already  in  existence  in  Jewish 
Christianity.  Therefore  the  Jewish  body  itself  must  pre- 
viously have  possessed  these  or  analogous  conceptions. 


New  Testament  73 

have  influenced  the  behefs  of  the  main  body  of 
the  Jews. 

Parenthetically,  I  may  remark  here  that  the 
popular  Messianic  belief  was  probably  much 
more  definite  than  we  might  suppose  from 
most  of  the  Jewish  religious  literature.  It 
received  a  great  impulse  from  the  reference 
to  the  Messiah  in  the  Book  of  Daniel^  (vii. 
IS  f,),  but  this  reference  itself  proves  that 
the  Messianic  belief  had  already  a  develop- 
ment behind  it.  And  from  the  Synoptic 
Gospels  we  see  that  this  belief  was  deeply 
fixed  in  the  popular  mind  in  the  time  of  Jesus. 
So  much  may  be  stated,  with  the  brevity 
which  our  circumstances  demand,  to  illustrate 
the  statement  that  the  account  in  Matt.  i. 
IS  ff,  has  most  probably  arisen  out  of  a  non- 
Jewish  story,  known  in  certain  Jewish  circles, 
and  adopted  from  these  by  some  Jewish 
Christians. 

Among  the  parallels  which  come  into  con- 
sideration I  will  first  mention  the  N.  Arabian 
^  See  Note  iv.,  p.  213. 


74  Bible  Problems 

mythic  story  of  Dusares/  which  the  heathen 
Arabs  themselves  saw  to  be  parallel.  Dusares 
in  fact  was  worshipped,  both  at  Petra  and  at 
Elusa,  as  "the  only  begotten  of  the  Lord" 
(ixovoyevrjs  tov  AecnroTov),  and  his  mother  as 
the  Virgin  {Tiapdevos,  Koprj),^  No  doubt  he 
is  just  such  a  deity  as  Tammuz  (the  Babylonian 
Dumuzi),  who  is  variously  represented  as  the 
son  and  as  the  husband  of  Istar.^  In  this 
connexion  it  may  be  noticed  that,  as  Jerome 
{Opera,  i.  321)  states,  the  cult  of  Tammuz  or 
Adonis  was  practised  in  the  reputed  cave  of 
the  Nativity  at  Bethlehem.  This  father  indeed 
regards  the  cult  as  a  deliberate  profanation,  but 
the  question  is  whether  the  cave  had  not,  long 
before  the  birth  of  Christ,  been  connected  by 
popular  tradition  with  Tammuz-worship.     The 

^  Dusares  =  Dhu-shara,  a  local  name  for  Tammuz,  allud- 
ing perhaps  to  the  beginning  of  the  year  in  autumn 
(Winckler,  Arahisch-Semitisch-Orientalisch,^.  129).  Cp.  also 
Winckler,  op.  cit.,  pp.  126  f.  ;  W.  R.  Smith,  Kinship  and 
Marriage,  2nd  ed.,  pp.  298-303 ;  Wellhausen,  Reste  des 
Arahischen  Heidenthums,  pp.  48  y! 

2  Epiphanius,  Hoer,,  li.     The  goddess  is  Al-Lat  (p.  206). 

3  See  Enc.  Biblica,  "  Tammuz  "  ;  and  cp.  "  Adonis,"  §  2. 


New  Testament  75 

mother  of  Dusares  was  the  old  mother-goddess, 
and  the  title  "  Virgin  "  applied  to  her  suggests 
the  true  meaning  of  the  term  in  that  non- Jewish 
story  which  was  most  probably  adapted  by  Jews 
and  Jewish  Christians,  as  they  thought  best. 
Dusares,  of  course,  being  a  Tammuz  figure,  is 
not  represented  as  the  world's  Redeemer.  That 
privilege  was  left  for  the  Babylonian  Marduk. 
He  is,  however,  the  "  only  begotten,"  which 
may  remind  us  of  the  "  only  begotten  God " 
in  perhaps  the  best  text  of  John  i.  18.^ 

And  what  was  the  original  meaning  of  the 
term  "  Virgin  "  ?  As  has  long  since  been  shown, 
it  expressed  the  fact  that  the  great  mythic 
mother-goddess  was  independent  of  the  mar- 
riage-tie. In  those  remote  times  to  which 
the  cult  of  that  goddess  properly  belonged, 
"  the  mother  held  the  chief  place  in  the  clan, 
and  all  women  shared  a  measure  of  free  love."^ 

^  fjLovoy€vrj<;  Oeo?  is  Westcott-Hort's  reading ;  it  is  sup- 
ported by  Cod.  Sin.,  B,  C*,  L,  Memph.,  Pesh.,  Clem.  Alex., 
Origen,  Basil.  The  Revised  Version,  in  margin,  renders 
^ '  God  only -begotten." 

2  Barton,  Semitic  Origins  (1902),  p.  84.  ^ 


76  Bible  Problems 

The  goddess-mother  in  fact  preceded  the 
goddess-wife.  In  Egypt,  for  instance,  Isis  first 
of  all  finds  representation  as  an  independent 
deity ;  only  at  a  latter  stage  was  she  said  to  be 
married  to  Osiris.  The  student  must  not  be  re- 
pelled by  my  reference  to  these  facts,  the  bearing 
of  which  on  the  statement  in  Matt.  i.  18  will  be 
expounded  presently.  We  must  remember  that 
the  real  presence  of  a  Spirit  of  Holiness  in  Israel 
is  best  proved  by  its  transformations  of  the  rude 
and  gross  conceptions  of  a  primitive  age. 

AVe  have  now  to  pass  on  to  a  mythological 
narrative  which  is  more  important  than  that 
Arabian  belief,  because,  when  closely  studied, 
it  illustrates  and  explains  a  larger  amount  of 
the  Matthsean  prelude.  It  has  come  down  to 
us  in  a  Hebraized  form,  but  it  is  still  very  full 
of  mythological  elements,  so  that  we  can  safely 
illustrate  it  by  parallels  in  Babylonian,  Egyp- 
tian, and  Persian  beliefs.  A  Grseco-Asiatic 
parallel  has  also  a  claim  to  be  mentioned.    ' 

This  important  but  very  strange  narrative 
has  found  insertion  in  one  of  the  many  com- 


New  Testament  77 

posite  books  in  the  Bible,  the  Apocalypse  of 
John  (see  Rev.  xii.).  Beyond  doubt  it  has  a 
Jewish  source,  though,  as  verse  11  shows,  it 
has  been  worked  up  by  a  Christian  writer. 
But  the  Jewish  narrator,  or  those  earlier 
Jewish  informants  on  whom  he  may  have  been 
dependent,  derived  it  from  some  non-Jewish 
source.  That  source  was  a  very  ancient 
mythological  tradition,  which  had  become,  so 
to  speak,  "international,"  but  may  in  the 
last  resort  probably  be  traced  to  Babylonia.^ 
That  the  woman  "  clothed  with  the  sun,  and 
the  moon  under  her  feet,  and  upon  her  head  a 
crown  of  twelve  stars  "  was,  to  the  Jewish 
narrator,  the  mother  of  the  expected  Messiah, 
is  plain.  ^  But  it  is  from  the  kindred  myth- 
ologies of  Babylonia  and  Egypt  that  we  learn 
why  the  woman  was  so  magnificently  arrayed. 
The  reason  was  that,  according  to  the  under- 
lying myth,  she  was  the  queen  of  heaven,  the 

1  See  Note  ii.^  p.  195. 

2  Cp.  V.  5  with  xix.  15  and  Ps.  ii.  9  (Psalms  of  Solomon, 
xvii.  24),  and  v.  10  with  xi.  15  and  Ps.  ii.  2.  See,  however, 
Note  vl,  p.  240. 


78  Bible  Problems 

mother  of  the  sun-god.^  If  there  be  any  doubt 
of  this,  it  is  at  once  dispelled  by  the  reference 
in  verses  3  and  4  to  the  deadly  foe  of  the 
woman  and  her  son — ''  the  great  red  dragon, 
having  seven  heads  and  ten  horns,  and  upon 
his  head  seven  diadems,"  who  "  stood  before  the 
woman,  that  when  she  was  delivered  he  might 
devour  her  child."  This  dragon  and  his  doings 
cannot  be  explained  from  Zoroastrian  sources.^ 

1  ''  Queen  of  heaven  "  was  one  of  the  chief  titles  of  the 
goddess  Istar,  **^  mooned  Ashtaroth,  queen  and  mother 
both."  Similarly  in  Roman  Catholic  phraseology,  Regina 
Cceli  means  the  Virgin  Mary ;  whence  Dante's  use  of 
"  Regina  del  cielo  "  and  "  Donna  del  cielo/'  Paradiso,  xxxi. 
100,  xxiii.  106 J  xxxii.  29. 

2  Till  Fritz  Hommel  and  Gunkel,  critics  had  usually 
explained  the  dragon^  or  (xx.  2)  the  serpent,  of  Revela- 
tion from  Zoroastrian  sources.  Plausible  as  this  in  some 
respects  may  be,  the  representations  of  the  dragon  in 
Revelation  can  all  be  explained  from  Babylonian  mythology, 
which  does  not,  however,  exclude  the  combination  of 
Zoroastrian  influences.  On  this  important  point  see  Note 
iii.j  and  on  the  dragon-myth  in  general  see  Encyclopcedia 
Bihlica,  "Creation/'  "  Dragon,"  "  Serpent/'  and  for  a  well- 
arranged  popular  summary  of  facts  A.  Smythe-Palmer, 
Babylonian  Influence  on  the  Bible,  1897.  On  Zoroastrianism, 
see  Encyclopcedia  Biblica,  "Zoroastrianism/' and  cp.  Moffatt, 
^'Zoroastrianism  and  Primitive  Christianity/'  Hibbert 
Journal,  July  1903,  pp.  763  f.  ;  Jan.  1904,  pp.  347  f. 


New  Testament  79 

He  is  the  monster,  so  specifically  Babylonian, 
known  as  Tiamat  {s.  feminine  form),  who  repre- 
sents primseval  chaos,  and  who  ruled  the  world 
till  the  young  sun-god  Marduk  conquered  her. 
According  to  one  form  of  the  myth  (alluded  to 
in  some  Old  Testament  passage)  ^  the  dragon 
had  been  hurled  down  by  his  divine  conqueror 
to  the  watery  abyss ;  hence  in  vv,  15  and  16 
we  are  told  that  he  cast  out  of  his  mouth  water 
as  a  river,  after  the  woman.     For,  naturally 
enough,  he  persecuted  the  woman  whose  child 
was   destined  to  become  his  subduer.     How 
the  dragon  knew  this  we  are  not  told,  but  the 
original  myth  doubtless  stated  (cp.  Note  ii., 
p.  205).     It  is  added  that  the  earth  helped  the 
woman,  and  swallowed  up  the  river  produced 
by  the   dragon ;   that   is,  the  earth,  dreading 
the  destructive  flood  from  the  great  deep  (in 
Hebrew  tehom,  akin  to  Tiamat,  the  name  of 
the  Babylonian  dragon),  placed  herself — as  the 

^  See  Am.  ix.  3,  Ps.  xliv.  20,  Job.  iii.  8  (xli.  10),  vii.  12, 
xli.  1-7,  and  cp.  Enc.  Bihlica,  ^^  Dragon,"  §5;  Gunkel, 
Sckopjung,  pp.  86^. 


8o  Bible  Problems 

Babylonians  would  have  said — on  the  side  of 
Tiamat's  conqueror.  In  reality  it  is  the  old 
story  of  the  conflict  between  light  and  dark- 
ness, order  and  disorder,  transferred  to  the  latter 
days,  and  adapted  by  spiritualization,  and  by 
the  removal  of  the  name  Marduk,  to  the  wants 
of  faithful  Jews. 

There  are  not  a  few  difficulties  in  Rev.  xii., 
notably  the  reference  to  Michael^  {vv.  7-9) 
as  the  antagonist  and  conqueror  of  the  dragon, 
but  into  these  I  cannot  now  enter.  What  I 
have  to  call  your  attention  to  is,  that  this 
strange  and  difficult  narrative  makes  no  refer- 
ence to  the  Messiah's  father.  This  may  be 
explained  by  the  hypothesis  that  in  the  Oriental 
myth  upon  which  this  Jewish  narrative  is  based, 
the  mother  alone  was  mentioned.  For  the 
"  woman  clothed  with  the  sun "  evidently  re- 
presents one  of  those  heaven  goddesses  {e.g., 
Istar,  Isis,  Artemis)  who  were  mothers,  but 
not  originally  wives,^ — in  short  "virgins,"  in 

1  See  Note  iv.,  p.  222. 

2  See  Ramsay,  Historical  Commentary  on   the    Galatians^ 


New  Testament  8i 

the  sense  in  which  IlapOevo^  was  appHed  to 
the  great  mother-goddess  of  Asia  Minor.  It 
appears  probable  that  in  some  of  the  early 
Jewish  versions  of  the  Oriental  myth  of  the 
Divine  Redeemer  (which  has  not,  so  far  as  we 
know  as  yet,  been  preserved)  the  mother  of  the 
Holy  Child  was  called  a  "  virgin,"  for  nothing 
is  easier  than  for  divine  titles  to  pass  from 
one  religion  to  another,  and  for  their  original 
meaning  to  be  forgotten.  In  other  versions 
it  is  possible  that  the  title  adopted  was  "  the 
Woman,"  a  term  which  may  be  directly  trace- 
able to  Babylonia.^     For  the  former  title,  we 

p.  202  (cp.  pp.  40/.),  and  cp.  Roscher,  Lex.  der  Griech.-rom. 
Mythologie,  ii.  1,  col.  364.  See  also  the  note  in  W.  R. 
Smith's  Kinship,  2nd  edition,  pp.  298-306,  ending  with 
the  words,  "It  is  well  worth  inquiring  whether  in  North 
Semitic  religion  also  the  goddess-mother  is  not  older  than 
the  goddess-wife,"  etc. ;  and  G.  A.  Barton,  Semitic  OriginSj 
chap.  iii. 

1  It  has  been  suggested  by  Zimmern  (K.A.T.,  3rd  ed., 
p.  36l)  that  the  title,  ''The  Woman,"  may  have  come 
from  the  name  of  the  consort  of  the  divine  Redeemer  of 
the  Babylonians,  which  was  Damkina,  i.e.,  "  the  woman 
of  the  depth,"  the  ^avK-q  of  Damascius.  Cp.  Gunkel, 
Schopfung,  p.  386.  Surely  Damkina,  like  Istar,  was  not 
originally  bound  by  the  marriage-tie. 

6 


82  Bible  Problems 

can  with  some  confidence  refer  to  the  Septua- 
gint  rendering  of  ha-almah  in  Isa.  vii.  14  (-^ 
TTapOevos,  whence  the  rendering  of  our  version), 
which  I  know  not  how  otherwise  to  explain  ^ 
than  as  an  allusion  to  a  belief  current  among 
the  translator's  contemporaries,  and  for  the 
latter  to  Rev.  xii.  1  (by  implication),  and  just 
possibly  to  a  passage  in  the  Book  of  Enoch 
(Ixix.  29),  where  the  oldest  manuscript  has, 
not  "  Son  of  man,"  but  "  Son  of  the  woman."  ^ 
I  may  state,  however,  that  I  do  not  myself  lay 
any  stress  on  the  second  of  these  titles  for 
the  Messiah's  mother,  and  mention  it  here,  in 
deference  to  some  other  scholars.^ 

It  must  surely  be  obvious  that  neither  "  the 
virgin"  nor  "the  woman"  was  a  natural  title 
to  be  invented  by  the  Jews  for  the  Messiah's 
mother.  Both  are  most  easily  explained  on 
the  mythological  theory  which  I  am  now  ex- 
pounding.    I  mean  that  both  titles  (if  both  may 

1  See  p.  194,  Note  i. 

2  An  error  in  the  translation  may,  however,  be  sus- 
pected. 

3  Gunkel  and  Zimmern. 


New  Testament  83 

be  accepted)  came  from  one  or  more  versions 
of  an  old  Babylonian  myth  of  the  birth  and 
exploits  of  the  divine  Redeemer  of  the  world. 

The  correctness  of  this  opinion,  as  regards 
the  title  "the  virgin,"  can  be  rendered  still 
more  probable  by  a  slight  digression.  There 
is  a  well-known  Jewish- Christian  view,  found 
in  a  fragment  of  the  Gospel  according  to  the 
Hebrews  and  elsewhere,  that  the  mother  of 
the  Messiah  was  the  Holy  Spirit  (the  Hebrew 
ruah,  "spirit,"  is  generally  feminine).  The 
passage  containing  it  is,  "Even  now  thy 
mother  the  Holy  Spirit  has  seized  me  by 
one  of  my  hairs,  and  has  borne  me  to  the 
great  mountain  Tabor,"  which  probably  refers 
to  a  narrative  of  the  Temptation  of  Jesus 
Christ.^  That  this  view  was  originally  con- 
nected with  a  non-Jewish  myth  of  the  birth 
of  the  Redeemer  from  a  divine  Mother,  viz., 

1  See  Enc.  Biblica,  cols.  1896,  4884,  also  4966  (where 
the  reference  to  Tabor  is  explained).  The  passage  is 
quoted  by  Origen  ;  see  Nestle,  N.  T.  Greed  Supplementum, 
p.  77.  Cp.  also  Wilkinson's  interesting  letter,  Guardian, 
Nov.  2,  1904. 


84  Bible  Problems 

Istar,  is  suggested  by  the  fact/  that  by  the 
Mandaeans  the  Holy  Spirit  is  equated  with 
Istra-Libat,  ix,,  Istar-Dilbat.^  It  is  true  that, 
according  to  the  old  belief  spoken  of,  the 
Holy  Spirit  became  united  with  Jesus  of 
Nazareth  at  the  Baptism.  But  this  must  be 
read  in  the  light  of  the  theory  elaborated  in 
Egypt,  but  altogether  Oriental  in  spirit,  that 
the  divine  double  (called  in  Egyptian  ka)  in- 
fused into  a  royal  infant  at  his  birth  awoke 
to  self- consciousness  at  the  moment  of  his  ac- 
cession to  the  throne.  The  myth,  out  of  which 
that  old  Jewish-Christian  view  developed,  must 
have  stated  that  the  world's  Redeemer  (not 
Jesus  Christ)  was  the  child  of  Istar.  It  will 
be  remembered  that  the  sacred  bird  of  Istar 
(Astarte)  was  the  dove,  and  that  in  Matt.  iii. 
16,  Mark  i.  10,  Luke  iii.  22,  John  i.  32,  the 
supernatural  form  which  appeared  at  Christ's 

1  Mentioned  by  Zimmem  (op.  cit.,  p.  440,  note  2)  on 
the  authority  of  Noldeke. 

2  Dilbat  is  the  Sumerian  name  for  the  planet  Venus. 
The  connexion  of  Istar  with  this  planet  is  primitive.  See 
Zimmern,  K,A,T.j  3rd  ed.,  pp.  424/ 


New  Testament  85 

baptism  is  likened  to  a  dove  ;  also  that  the 
view  connecting  the  Divine  Sonship  with  the 
Baptism  is  strongly  suggested  by  that  form 
of  the  text  of  Luke  iii.  22  b,  which  "  was  read 
in  the  Greek  Church  down  to  about  300  a.d. 
and  in  the  Latin  West  down  to  360  a.d.," 
viz.,  "and  a  voice  came  from  heaven,  which 
said.  Thou  art  my  son,  this  day  have  I 
begotten  thee."^ 

It  is  time,  however,  to  pause.  I  have  not 
indeed  completed  the  critical  proof  of  the 
mythic  character  of  the  statement  of  the 
Redeemer's  birth,  so  abundant  is  the  store  of 
material.  Not  to  lay  stress  on  Greek  myths,^ 
which  we  do  not,  strictly  speaking,  require  for 
the  illustration  of  a  Jewish  tradition,  I  may 
remark  that  I  have  by  me  Assyrio-Babylonian 
and  Egyptian  evidence,^  which  seems  to  deserve 
more  attention  than  it  has  yet  received.     But 

1  Cp.  the  ecclesiastical  use  of  vloOeo-U  for  "baptism." 
The  quotation  is  from  Usener,  Encyclopcedia  Biblica,  col. 
3348.  See  also  Usener's  illustrations  from  the  history  of 
the  sacrament  of  Baptism  {Weihnachtsfest,  pp.  l66ff.). 

2  See  Note  ii.,  Section  D.  ^  See  Note  v.,  p.  235. 


86  Bible  Problems 

I  will  confine  myself  here  to  mentioning  one 
remarkable  traditional  story  which  cannot  very 
well  be  passed  over — that  of  the  Babylonian 
king  Sargon  (Sargina)  of  Agade,  who  flourished 
about  3800  b.c/  It  is  a  legend  of  mythic 
origin,  and  represents  the  great  king  as  having 
been  born  of  a  poor  mother  in  secret,  and  as 
not  knowing  his  father.^  There  is  reason  to 
suspect  that  something  similar  was  originally 
said  by  the  Israelites  of  Moses,^  and  would  it 
be  strange  if  a  similar  account  were  given  of 
the  birth  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  second  Moses  ? 

1  It  has  come  down  to  us  in  a  copy  dating  from  the 
eighth  century  b.c. 

2  See  R.  W.  Rogers,  History  of  Babylonia  aud  Assyria, 
i.  362 ;  Winckler,  Geschichte  Israels,  ii.  91  ;  and  cp.  Enc. 
Biblica,  col.  3207.  We  may  illustrate  the  above  by  the 
legendary  statement  in  the  Westcar  Papyrus  that  the 
first  three  kings  of  the  fifth  Egyptian  dynasty  were 
children  born  to  Ra  (the  sun-god)  by  the  wife  of  a  priest 
(Maspero,  Dawn  of  Civilization^  p.  258,  note  4).  Stories  of 
this  sort  naturally  arose  in  the  case  of  usurpers.  Thus 
Alexander  the  Great  was  represented  as  having  been  born 
to  the  god  Ammon  (Ra),  i.e.,  without  a  human  father 
(Trogus,  in  Justin,  Hist.^  xi.  11  ;  cp.  N.  Schmidt,  Enc. 
Biblica,  col.  4693).     See  Note  ii.,  end. 

3  See  Encyclopoedia  Biblica,  "Moses/'  §  S,  with  note  4. 


New  Testament  87 

I  trust  that  I  shall  not  be  misinterpreted. 
This  is  only  a  conjecture,  but  both  science 
and  history  constantly  need  the  help  of  con- 
jecture, and  this  conjecture  is  a  very  plausible 
and  illuminative  one.  For,  thanks  to  the  acute- 
ness  and  thoroughness  of  Gunkel,  it  is  now 
incontrovertible  that  reflections  of  mythology 
lasted  to  a  very  late  period  among  the  Jews. 
Rendel  Harris,  too,  has  shown  that  fragments  of 
myths  were  in  circulation  in  many  strange  dis- 
guises in  the  early  Christian  centuries,  and  I  too 
could  easily  lead  my  hearers  into  fields  which 
would  supply  some  important  analogies  for  the 
view  which  is  here  proposed.  But  this  appears 
to  me  a  case  in  which  one  may  say  that  "  half 
is  more  than  the  whole." 

Still,  there  is  one  other  statement  in  the 
Matthasan  prelude  which  I  must,  however 
briefly,  mention,  and  endeavour  to  explain. 
In  the  original  myth  of  the  World-redeemer's 
birth  a  place  wd,s  doubtless  given  to  the  per- 
secution of  His  mother  by  the  dragon.  No 
practised   eye   can  fail  to   see  that  this   has 


88  Bible  Problems 

its  counterpart  in  Matt.  ii.  The  infuriated 
dragon  becomes  the  angry  Herod,  whose 
popular  reputation  for  cruelty  marked  him 
out  as  a  fit  historical  representative  of  the 
bloodthirsty  monster  of  chaos.  Instead  of 
flying  into  the  wilderness  (Rev.  xii.  14),  the 
holy  Mother  of  Christ  flees  with  her  Child, 
under  the  conduct  of  Joseph,  to  Egypt.^  The 
time,  too,  is  different  (probably)  from  that  in 
the  original  myth,  which  must  surely  have 
said  that  the  woman  fled  to  a  safe  place 
Appointed  by  the  Deity,  that  she  might  be 
delivered.  In  Rev.  xii.  4  the  dragon  is  in 
fact  represented  as  persecuting  the  woman 
before  the  birth  of  her  child,  though  the 
flight  into  the  wilderness  (of  which  two 
accounts  are  given,  v.  6  and  v,  14)  is  placed 

^  The  application  of  Hos.  xi.  1  6  to  the  sojourn  of  the 
Holy  Family  in  Egypt  is  extremely  difficult.  The  real 
reason  for  the  substitution  of  Egypt  for  *^'  the  wilderness  " 
probably  is  that  Egypt,  according  to  several  Old  Testament 
passages,  was  chosen  as  a  place  of  refuge,  or  of  temporary 
sojourn,  by  several  of  the  personages  of  sacred  histoiy. 
(The  original  meaning  of  the  word  read  as  Mizraim, 
''Egypt,"  in  those  passages  need  not  be  considered.) 


New  Testament  89 

after  the  birth.  Of  course,  in  the  earhest 
form  of  the  myth  a  flight  into  the  wilderness 
could  not  have  found  place;  for  the  pheno- 
mena must  have  been  all  heavenly.  Indeed, 
even  in  Rev.  xii.  the  story  begins  with  the 
statement,  **  There  appeared  a  great  sign  in 
heaven." 

Let  me  hasten  to  add  that,  though  the 
prelude  to  the  First  Gospel  does  appear  to 
contain  mythic  elements,  it  is  equally  clear 
that  the  Christians,  even  more  than  their 
Jewish  predecessors,  treated  the  borrowed 
material  very  freely,  in  the  spirit  of  those 
words  of  St  Paul,  "all  things  are  yours." 
The  woman  arrayed  with  the  sun — a  repre- 
sentation still  preserved  in  the  Jewish-Christian 
apocalyptic  passage — became  to  the  writer  in 
the  Matthaean  prelude  a  lowly  Jewish  maiden ;  ^ 
the  functions  of  her  son  became,  not  the  de- 
struction of  the  chaos-monster,  nor  the  ruling 
of  nations  with  a  rod  of  iron,  but  the  internal 
as  well  as  external  salvation  of  his  people  ;  the 
^  See  Note  vi.,  p.  240. 


go  Bible  Problems 

royal  capital  of  the  Redeemer  became,  not 
Babylon,  but  Jerusalem ;  the  dragon,  with 
jaws  wide  open  to  devour,  became  Herod, 
"  seeking  the  young  child  "  in  Bethlehem  "  to 
destroy  him " ;  the  flight  of  the  mother  into 
the  wilderness  (the  child  had  been  caught  up 
to  God's  throne)  became  the  flight  of  the 
Holy  Family  into  Egypt.  The  stress  laid  on 
the  virginity  (in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the 
word)  of  the  holy  mother  is  peculiar  to  the 
evangelist.  It  arose  out  of  a  misunderstood 
title  which  originally  implied  something  very 
far  from  the  thoughts  of  Christians,  and  the 
narrative,  to  a  historic  and  therefore  reverent 
mind,  is  by  no  means  disparaged  if  taken  to 
stand  in  some  connexion  with  the  Egyptian 
theory  of  the  divine  generation  of  kings 
(see  Note  hi.  B),  and  the  Philonian  belief 
in  the  divine  generation  of  certain  favoured 
personages    of    the    Old     Testament.^      Nor 

1  Philo,  De  Cherubim,  §  13  (i.  180/),  referred  to  by 
Conybeare,  and  also  by  Usener,  Enc.  Bihlica,  '^Nativity," 
§17.  See  also  Abbott,  Enc.  Bihlica,  '^Gospels/'  %  21, 
who  gives  other  apposite  quotations  from  Philo, 


New  Testament  91 

must  we  forget  one  of  the  most  important 
distinctions  of  the  Gospel  story,  viz.,  that 
while,  in  the  imperfectly  Hebraized  story  in 
Rev.  xii.,  the  birth  of  the  Redeemer  (not 
"  made  like  unto  us  in  all  things  ")  is  in  heaven, 
in  the  Christian  narrative  the  scene  of  the 
event  is  transferred  to  a  humble  resting-place 
on  earth. 

This  view  of  the  ultimate  origin  of  the 
Matthsean  narrative  should  take  away  all  pain 
from  the  discovery  that  the  statement  of  the 
Virgin-Birth  is  isolated  even  in  the  Gospel 
where  it  occurs,  and  that  it  receives  no 
support,  direct  or  indirect,  from  any  other 
passage  in  the  New  Testament  except  Luke  i. 
34,  35,  which  is  most  probably  a  later  inser- 
tion.^ There  is  nothing  surprising  in  this. 
It  is  obvious  that  there  was  no  compulsory 
uniformity  of  belief  and  expression  in  the 
early  Church.  Different  writers  had  different 
didactic  objects  and  different  habits  of  mind, 
and  wrote  in  the  simplicity  of  their  hearts, 

1  See  Note  vii.,  p.  244. 


9  2  Bible  Problems 

without  any  suspicion  that  they  were  con- 
tributing to  the  formation  of  an  authoritative 
church-document. 

To  sum  up.  The  mythological  theory, 
rightly  understood,  removes  the  huge  diffi- 
culties which  beset  the  statements  in  the 
Matthaean  prelude  on  the  assumption  that 
they  are  historical.  The  statement  in  Matt. 
i.  18,  and  the  passage  introduced  by  it, 
together  with  the  episode  of  the  persecution 
in  Matt.  ii.  13-21,^  are  shown  by  the  foregoing 
facts  to  be  not  history  in  the  modern  sense  of 
that  word,  but  rather  a  substitute  for  history 
addressed  to  the  pious  imagination.  Some 
persons  may  find  it  difficult  at  first  to  realize 
this.  It  becomes  their  duty,  therefore,  to  ac- 
quaint themselves  with  some  of  the  numerous 
imaginative  narratives  in  the  later  Jewish 
literature,  and  also  with  the  striking  specimens 
of  this  kind  of  composition  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment writings.     The  Book  of  Genesis,  as  all 

1  On  the  story  of  the  Magi  in  Matt.  ii.  1-12,  see 
Note  viii.,  p.  245. 


New  Testament  93 

recent  critics  agree,  abounds  in  passages 
which,  though  seemingly  historical,  are  really 
legends,^  and  sometimes  even  contain  elements 
of  non-Jewish  mythic  origin.  So  far  as  the 
virginity  of  the  Mother  of  Christ  is  concerned 
— I  speak  as  a  historical  critic — the  passage  in 
the  prelude  to  the  First  Gospel  is  a  Jewish- 
Christian  transformation  of  a  primitive  story, 
derived  ultimately,  in  all  probability,  from 
Babylonia,  and  analogous  to  the  Jewish  trans- 
formation of  the  Babylonian  cosmogony  in 
the  opening  section  of  Genesis.  That  primi- 
tive story  has  evidently  passed  through  a 
succession  of  phases — 1.  concurrent  Oriental 
phases,  one  cannot  exactly  tell  how  many, 
2.  a  Jewish  phase,  3.  a  Jewish- Christian. 
This  is  the  view,  which  in  my  opinion  is 
historically  most    acceptable,    having    regard 

^  See  H.  Gunkel,  The  Legends  of  Genesis  (Chicago, 
U.S.A.).  In  a  less  brilliant  style,  and  seemingly  with  a 
less  clear  view  of  the  nature  of  legends.  Prof.  Driver 
treats  the  same  subject  in  an  instructive  and  scrupulously 
moderate  work.  The  Book  of  Genesis  (Westminster  Com- 
mentaries, edited  by  Dr  Walter  Lock),  1 904,  Introduction, 
§3. 


94  Bible  Problems 

both  to  the  far-reaching  influence  of  Baby- 
lonia, and  to  the  well-known  habits  of  Jewish 
editors. 

Is  there  any  irreverence  in  this  view  ?  Such 
a  supposition  can  only  be  excused  by  ignor- 
ance of  the  temper  of  historical  critics. 
Reverence  is  a  fundamental  requirement  in 
the  historical  student  of  religion.  How 
indeed  should  we  understand  any  of  the 
utterances  of  faith  without  reverence  ?  Even 
to  the  old  Babylonian  and  Egyptian  myths 
referred  to  above,  we  owe  this  tribute,  for  they 
express  one  of  the  most  ancient  longings  of 
the  human  heart,  that  for  a  Redeemer  from  evil. 
And  if  the  devout  Egyptological  student, 
Victor  Ancessi,  goes  too  far  when  he  transfers 
the  most  essential  Catholic-Christian  ideas 
into  a  remote  antiquity,  yet  we  cannot  deny 
that  at  least  the  germs  of  some,  or  even  many, 
of  our  holiest  truths  are  derived  from  Egypt 
and  Babylonia.  It  is,  however,  a  somewhat 
different  tribute — a  mixture  of  reverence  and 
love — that  we  owe  to  the  traditions  of  the  life 


New  Testament  95 

of  the  Lord  Jesus,  and  this  tribute  is  not 
impaired  if  we  seriously  and  sympathetically 
criticize  the  contents  of  those  traditions.  We 
may  indeed  be  compelled  to  hold  that  the 
earliest  and  the  latest,  in  the  order  of  narration, 
are  different  in  character  from  the  great  bulk 
of  the  narratives.  But  we  know  by  our  ex- 
perience in  the  Old  Testament  that  for  a 
narrative  to  be  non-historical,  does  not  pre- 
vent it  from  having  a  religious  value. 

There  are  some  liberal  thinkers  who  are 
wont  to  speak  somewhat  disparagingly  of  the 
representation  of  Christ  as  virgin-born  ;  and 
truly,  if  we  are  bound  to  connect  that  repre- 
sentation with  a  doctrine  of  original  sin,  we 
cannot  help  thinking  that  it  betrays  a  deficiency 
of  the  evangelical  spirit,  and  asking  whether  its 
presence  in  the  First  Gospel  must  not  be  due 
to  some  strange  accident.  If,  however,  the 
supposed  connexion  be  a  mistake,  it  becomes 
possible  to  hold  that  the  story  of  the  Virgin- 
Birth  has  a  real  religious  significance.  We 
cannot  indeed   affirm  that  the   physiological 


96  Bible  Problems 

virginity  of  the  Redeemer's  mother  has  any 
rehgious  value.  But  we  may  find  a  deep 
meaning  in  the  story,  if  regarded,  as  the  early 
Christian  writers  regard  the  "  estate  of  matri- 
mony," symbolically.  We  may  take  it,  in  the 
first  place,  as  a  poetic  and  popular  symbol  of 
a  primary  religious  truth — of  the  truth  that  the 
inestimable  blessings  which,  for  us,  have  their 
fountain-head  in  the  Crucified,  do  indeed  come 
from  above  (John  viii.  23),  and  not  from 
below,  are  not  humanly  produced,  but  have 
their  origin  in  God.  As  this  is  expounded 
by  Dante, —  ^ 

Their  wax,  and  he  who  shapes  it^  are  howe'er 

Of  different  kind  ;  whence  'neath  the  Ideal  Seal 
Various  degrees  of  lustre  must  appear. 

More  exquisitely  if  the  wax  were  moulded. 
The  heavens  exerting  all  their  energies, 
Then  would  the  Seal's  full  lustre  be  unfolded. 

Accepting  this  view,  the  story  expresses  a 
form  of  thought  parallel  to,  but  different  from, 
those  of  the  pre-existence   of  Christ    and   of 

1  Paradiso,  canto   xiii.   lines    67-69    (Wright's   transla- 
tion). 


New  Testament  97 

His  being  the  very  Word  of  God  made  fiesh.^ 
These  forms  are  all  equally  prized  by  us  as 
expressive  symbols,  but  we  are  bound  to  dis- 
tinguish them,  and  must  not,  in  critical  w^rit- 
ings,  use  the  Johannine  phrase  "he  became 
flesh  "  of  the  Virgin-Birth,  however  natural  this 
may  have  been  for  great  church-theologians 
(see  the  Nicene  Creed),  in  the  age  before 
criticism  had  come  into  existence. 

But  there  are  still  some  "fragments  that 
remain,"  and  in  gathering  them  up  we  may 
again  seek  help  from  Dante,  who  was  pre- 
served, not  only  by  his  theological  lore  from 
being  a  shallow  thinker,  but  also  by  his  poeti- 
cal genius  from  mistaking  symbol  for  crude 
fact.  The  thirty-third  canto  of  the  Paradiso 
shows  clearly  enough  that  to  mediaeval 
Christians  the  Virgin  Mary  was  essentially 
a  personification  of  the  divine  mercy  which 
both  causes  and  mediates  to  man  the  divine 


^  Cp.  Lobstein,  The  Virgin-Birth  of  Jesus  (Crown 
Theological  Library),  p.  96 ;  Schmiedel,  Encyclopcedia 
Biblica,  "Mary,"i.,  §§  I6,  17. 

7 


9  8  Bible  Problems 

pardon.  Dante  is  no  rationalist,  but  he 
intuitively  pierces  to  the  spiritual  centre  of 
orthodox  theology.  Listen  to  his  words,  or 
at  least  to  such  a  reflexion  of  their  meaning 
as  our  language  admits.^ 

O  Virgin  Mother^  daughter  of  thy  Son  ! 
Humblest,  yet  most  exalted  of  our  race. 
Forecast  of  counsel  in  the  Eternal  One  ' 

Here  unto  us  a  midday  torch  thou  art 
Of  Charity ;  and  unto  men  below 
The  living  streams  of  Hope  thou  dost  impart. 

Lady,  to  thee  such  worth  and  power  are  given, 
That  whoso  grace  desires,  and  asks  not  thee. 
Desires  to  fly,  without  a  wing,  to  heaven. 

Thy  kindness  succoureth  not  him  alone 

Who  asks  thy  aid  ;  but  oft  spontaneously 
Runs  in  advance,  and  is,  unasked  for,  shown. 

In  thee  dwells  Mercy — Pity  dwells  in  thee — 
In  thee  Munificence — in  thee  abounds 
Whate'er  of  Goodness  may  in  creature  be. 

If  anyone  doubts  the  theory  here  proposed, 
I  would  ask  him  to  see  what  our  poet  says  of 
Beatrice  and  Lucia.  That  these  figures  are 
essentially  personifications,  is  beyond  question, 
and  yet  the  personification,  aided  in  each  case 

^  Paradiso,  canto  xxxiii.  lines  1-3  and  10-21. 


New  Testament  99 

by  the  ascription  of  a  historic  name  to  the 
personified  abstraction,  is  so  effective  that  a 
simple  reader  might  suppose  the  description  to 
be  put  forth  as  historical.  And  I  think  that 
the  Christian  of  to-day  may  follow  Dante  in  so 
using  a  historic  name  and  person.  We  too, 
like  the  sovereign  poet,  cannot  be  so  absorbed 
in  the  child-saviour  as  to  forget  His  mother. 
And  since  we  know  so  little  about  her  histori- 
cally, we  may  well  be  pardoned  for  using  her 
as  a  symbol.^  To  some  of  us  the  Virgin 
Mother  may  be  the  indispensable  poetic 
symbol  of  the  highest  and  holiest  aspect  of  the 
womanly  ideal ;  to  others — or  indeed  to 
the  same  persons  in  a  different  mood — ^the 
equally  poetic  symbol  of  a  too  easily  forgotten 
aspect — ^the  maternal — of  the  divine  nature. 

1  In  doing  this  we  can  take  no  account  of  the  extra- 
canonical  story  of  Mary  (cp.  Enci/clopcedia  Biblica,  "  Mary/' 
i.,  §  21).  This  must  be  obvious.  But  a  Httle  consideration 
will  further  show  that  we  must  not  blur  the  outlines  of 
our  mental  picture  by  borrowing  from  those  references  to 
Mary  in  our  Gospels  which  are  outside  the  preludes  to  the 
First  and  Third  Gospels.  Indeed,  the  real  source  of  the 
deep  Christian  feeling  towards  Mary  is  Luke  i.  26-ii.  19. 


lOO  Bible  Problems 

We  in  the  West  may  have  been  diverted 
from  recognizing  this  aspect  by  the  repellent 
form  of  much  Eastern  symbolism,  but  we 
are  the  losers  by  this,  as  there  are  some 
signs  that  we  are  now  beginning  to  suspect.^ 
The  older  volume  of  Scripture  contains  one 
passage  in  which  this  most  touching  aspect  of 
the  divine  nature  is  beautifully  expressed, — 
"  Can  a  woman  forget  a  sucking  child,  that  she 
should  not  have  compassion  on  the  son  of  her 
womb  ?  Yea,  though  [by  a  very  bold  imagina- 
tion] they  should  forget,  yet  will  I  not  forget 
thee"  (Isa.  xlix.  15). 

I  shall  not  require  to  be  as  long  in  considering 
the  statement,  so  difficult,  and  yet  as  soon  as 
we  get  the  right  point  of  view,  so  transparent, 
of  the  Descent  of  Christ  to  the  nether  world. 

^  Cp.  Tyrren_,  Lex  Orandij  p.  175,  "In  the  last  resort 
we  must  see  in  her  (Mary)  the  revelation  of  a  new  aspect 
of  the  Divine  Goodness,  with  which  we  are  thus  put  into 
fuller  and  more  fruitful  communication."  Also  Grainger, 
The  Soul  of  a  Christian  j  p.  186,  "It  is  a  striking  fact  that 
a  new  worship  of  the  Divine  Mother  is  springing  up  in 
such  a  way  that  her  attributes  are  no  longer  centred  on 
Mary,  but  on  the  Supreme." 


New  Testament  loi 

It  is  given  in  its  fullest  form,  though  without 
the  necessary  sequel  of  the  Strong  One's 
victorious  exit,  in  a  passage  which  is  probably 
a  later  insertion ;  ^  but  is  none  the  less  useful 
as  a  record  of  an  early  form  of  belief.  The 
passage  runs  thus,  ''  For  as  Jonas  was  three 
days  and  three  nights  in  the  belly  of  the  sea- 
monster,  so  shall  the  Son  of  man  be  three  days 
and  three  nights  in  the  heart  of  the  earth " 
(Matt.  xii.  40).  There  is  also  an  apparently 
full  record  in  1  Pet.  iii.  18^.,  "Being  put  to 
death  in  the  flesh  but  revived  in  the  spirit,  in 
which  also  he  went  and  proclaimed  to  the 
spirits  in  ward,  who  formerly  disobeyed,  when 
the  long-suffering  of  God  waited  in  the  days 
of  Noe."  This  passage,  however,  has  been 
much  misunderstood,  and  recent  research 
throws  much  doubt  on  the  prevalent  view  that 
it  refers  to  the  descent  of  Christ  into  Hades.  ^ 
A  sounder  illustration  may  be  derived  from 
the  words  of  Christ  in  Rev.  i.  18,  "  I  am  the 
first  and  the  last,  and  the  Living  One ;  and  I 
1  See  Note,  p.  251.  2  gee  pp.  103/. 


I02  Bible  Problems 

was  dead,  and  behold,  I  am  alive  for  evermore, 
and  1  have  the  keys  of  Death  and  of  Hades," 
where  the  second  half  of  the  verse  is  a  partly 
translated  myth  of  the  Descent  into  Hades. 
From  the  two  passages — Matt.  xii.  40  and 
Rev.  i.  18 — taken  together,  we  are  able  to 
learn  that  the  descent  into  the  "  heart  of  the 
earth"  was  a  scene  in  the  great  drama  of 
the  struggle  between  the  divine  Redeemer  and 
the  dragon  of  chaos  and  lawlessness.  For 
the  "  sea-monster  "  (Knrog)  in  Matthew,  like  the 
"  great  fish  "  in  Jonah,  is  certainly  the  dragon 
{tannin)  of  which  we  read  in  Job  xxvii.  12 
and  Isa.  xxvii.  i.,  li.  9  (cp.  Ezek.  xxix.  3,  xxxii. 
2),  and  which  is  equivalent  to  the  Tiamat  of 
the  Babylonian  epic  of  Creation.^  We  learn 
too  that  the  sojourn  of  three  days  and  three 
nights  in  the  nether  world  followed  upon  the 

^  See  Encyclojjoedia  Bihlica,  "  Dragon,"  "  Jonah^"  §  4. 
Note  that  in  Jonah  ii.  4,  the  ^^ great  fish"  is  identified 
with  Sheol.  The  identification  may  be  attested  only  by 
the  editor  who  inserted  the  psalm  (Jon.  ii.)  and  called  it 
Jonah's  prayer,  but  is  doubtless  much  earlier.  See 
Ena/clopcedia  Bihlica,  col.  2570. 


New  Testament  103 

Redeemer's  death,  and  was  succeeded  by  His 
triumphant  ascension,  in  which  He  carried 
with  Him  the  keys  of  the  city  called  Death  ^ 
or  Hades,  as  a  token  of  His  overlordship. 
Evidently  the  death  of  the  Redeemer  is  here 
represented,  in  mythological  style,  as  His  being 
swallowed  up  by  the  dragon.^  Can  we  help 
being  reminded  of  the  old  myth  embodied  in 
Rev.  xii.,  where  the  dragon  is  said  to  have 
"  stood  before  the  woman  to  devour  her  child 
as  soon  as  it  was  born  "  {v,  4)  ? 

This  parallelism  naturally  suggests  the  idea 
that  the  representation  of  the  Christ  as  having 
descended  into  Hades  may  have  been  Jewish 
before  it  became  Christian,  and  Babylonian 
before  it  became  Jewish.  Nor  is  the  search 
for  evidence  altogether  fruitless.  The  Man- 
dgeans,  that  strange  sect  (not  yet  extinct)  on 
the  banks  of  the  Euphrates,  to  which  I  have 

^  "  Death  "  (Heb.  mdweth)  is  often  a  synon3m[i  of  She61 
(Ps.  vi.  5f  ix.  13^  xxii.  15^  Ixviii.  20,  Ixxxix.  48,  evii.  18, 
Isa.  xxviii.  15;  cp.  Rev.  i.  18,  vi.  8  [personification],  xx. 
13/.). 

2  See,  however,  the  next  paragraph. 


I04  Bible  Problems 

already  referred,  and  whose  highly  mixed  re- 
ligious  system   is    Babylonian    in    its    lowest 
stratum,   told   of  a   divine    Hero,^   who   was 
commissioned  by  his  "fathers,"  the  so-called 
"Great   Ones,"^  to  descend   into   the   nether 
world,  to  wage  successful  war  with  the  king 
of  darkness,  and  to  liberate  the  souls  of  the 
righteous,  and  restore  them  to  the  world  of 
light.      The   representation   of   the   Hero   as 
fighting  with  the  powers  of  darkness  seems  at 
first  sight  to  fill  a  gap  in  the  Biblical  mjrth.^ 
The  Christ,  as  one  might  think,  must   have 
had  to  fight  with  these  potentates  before  He 
could  quit  the  City  of  Death  as  a  victor.     This 
view   would    seem    to    be    favoured    by  the 
parallelism  asserted  in  Matt.  xii.  40  between 
the  experience  of  Jonah  and  that  of  the  Christ, 
and  it  is  very  possible  that  the  Jews  had  a 

1  Hibil  Ziw^,  son  of  Manda  d'Hayy^.  See  Brandt, 
Mandaische  Schriften,  pp.  138  ff.,  cp.  pp.  150  ff.;  Mand. 
Religion,  ipp.  182-184;  Gunkel,  Schopfung  und  Chaos,  pp. 
364,  382. 

2  See  Note  ix.,  p.  250. 

8  Let  me  recall  once  more  that  ^'^myth"  does  not  mean 
^' fable." 


New  Testament  105 

Messiah-story  (now  lost)  which  agreed  with 
the  Mandasan  in  this  respect.  Evidently, 
however,  the  Christian  instinct  in  general  was 
against  it.  The  New  Testament  writers  as  a 
rule  prefer  to  represent  the  battle  between 
Jesus  Christ  and  the  demons  as  having  taken 
place  in  His  earthly  lifetime  (see  e,g.  Matt, 
xii.  29,  Luke  x.  18,  John  xii.  31,  xiv.  30, 
xvi.  11),  and  the  cross  as  His  triumphal  throne 
(Col.  ii.  15  ;  cp.  John  xii.  23,  32). 

That  the  Mandsean  story  is  only  a  develop- 
ment of  a  Babylonian  myth  is  evident.  The 
conception  of  the  nether  world  as  a  city  with 
gates  is  certainly  in  the  first  instance  Baby- 
lonian, though  it  was  adopted,  probably  at  an 
early  date,  by  the  Israelites.^     There  is  in  fact 

1  See  Isa.  xxxviii.  10,  Jon.  ii.  7  (where  *^' earth"  is  used 
as  a  synonym  for  the  subterranean  world),  Ps.  ix.  14,  cvii. 
18,  Job  xvii.  l6,  xxxviii.  17;  cp.  Wisd.  xvi.  13,  Psalms  of 
Solomon  xvi.  2,  Matt.  xvi.  18.  All,  it  is  true,  late  passages. 
The  expression  "keys  of  Death"  is  thoroughly  Jewish 
(see  Wetstein  or  Bousset  on  Rev.  i.  18).  Philologically 
there  is  no  call  to  seek  out  a  parallel  in  Mithraism  (J.  M. 
Robertson,  Pagan  Christs,  pp.  200,  3 53);  and  mythologically 
Babylonia  claims  priority. 


io6  Bible  Problems 

an  elaborate  liabylonian  story  of  the  descent 
of  Istar  to  the  nether  City.  Possibly  it  is  the 
sole  survivor  of  a  class.  For  instance,  there 
was  surely  a  story  of  the  Descent  of  Marduk,^ 
which,  if  we  could  recover  it,  would  have  a 
prior  claim  to  consideration,  Marduk  being  so 
clearly  analogous  to  the  Jewish  and  Christian 
Messiah,  liut  the  "Descent  of  Istar"  (now 
well  known  through  popular  as  well  as  learned 
books  on  Assyriology)  is  quite  sufficient  for 
illustrative  purposes.  The  story  is  really  a 
combination  of  three  myths — one  in  which 
the  goddess  descended  to  the  "land  without 
return  "  under  compulsion,  a  second  in  which 
Tammuz  made  the  same  unavoidable  descent, 
and  a  third  in  which  Istar  went  of  her  own 
accord  to  seek  for  and  rescue  her  dead  consort 
Tammuz.^  Just  so,  the  references  to  the 
Descent  of  Christ  appear  to  have  been  of  a 
twofold  character.     Sometimes  He  was  com- 


1  See  Zimmern,  K.A.T.,  3rd  ed.,  p.  371. 

2  Cp.  Jastrow,    Religion   of  Babylonia  and   Assyria,  pp. 

573  jf: 


New  Testament  107 

pared  to  the  prophet  Jonah,  who  was  swallowed 
up  by  a  "  great  fish,"  which  is  identified  in  the 
so-called  prayer  of  Jonah  (Jon.  ii.  2)  with 
Sheol,  and  is  evidently  a  degenerate  form  of 
the  mythic  dragon  ;  at  other  times  (and  doubt- 
less this  became  the  favourite  representation^) 
as  having  entered  the  City  of  Death  of  His 
own  accord,  and  for  a  purpose  of  His  own.  A 
few  lines  may  appropriately  be  quoted  here, 
taken  from  an  early  section  of  the  "  Descent 
of  Istar,"  and  illustrative  of  those  triumphant 
words  in  Rev.  i.  18,  "  I  have  the  keys  of  Death 
and  of  Hades." 

When  Istar  arrived  at  the  gate  of  the  land  without  retum,^ 

She  spoke  to  the  watchman  of  the  gate  : 

Ho  !  watchman — open  thy  gate ; 

Open  thy  gate  that  I  may  enter. 

If  thou   dost   not   open   thy   gate,   if   thou   refusest  me 

admission, 
I  will  smash  the  door,  break  the  bolt. 
I  will  smash  the  threshold,  break  open  the  portals.^ 

^  See  chaps,  xvii.-xxvii.  of  the  apocryphal  "Gospel  of 
Nicodemus." 

2  Less  probably,  according  to  Zimmern,  "  without  com- 
passion." 

8  Jastrow,  Rel.  Bab.  Ass.,  pp.  568  /. 


io8  Bible  Problems 

What  Istar  here  threatens,  the  divine  Hero 
of  the  Mandasans  carries  out.  It  is  consonant 
with  the  dignity  of  Christ  to  suppose  that  all 
that  He  required  to  do,  according  to  the  second 
form  of  the  story,  was  to  threaten,  and  that 
the  keys  of  the  City  of  Death  were  at  once 
yielded  up. 

We  can  now  return  to  1  Pet.  iii.  18  ^i 
Most  people  suppose  that  the  writer  of 
1  Peter  alludes  here  to  a  form  of  the  belief 
in  the  Descensus  ad  inferos,  which  represented 
the  object  of  the  Christ  as  being  to  make  a 
spiritual  proclamation  to  certain  imprisoned 
spirits.  Surely  this  cannot  be.  The  object 
of  the  Descent  (regarded  as  a  voluntary  act 
of  the  Christ)  must  have  been  the  same  as 
that  of  the  divine  Hero  of  the  Mandaean 
belief,  viz.  to  liberate  the  souls  of  the 
righteous  of  past  ages.  Recent  study  of  the 
"Similitudes"  in  the  Book  of  Enoch,  how- 
ever, leads  us  to  the  conviction  that  the 
preacher  referred  to  in  v,  19  must  be  Enoch, 
a  hero  who,  originally  of  solar  origin,  receives 


New  Testament  109 

(not  inappropriately)  such  wonderful  honour 
in  later  Jewish  Uterature ;  indeed,  in  chap. 
Ixxi.  of  the  Book  of  Enoch  he  is  even  iden- 
tified with  the  Son  of  man,  i.e.  the  Messiah.^ 
If  so,  the  only  question  can  be  whether  the 
subject  of  the  verb  in  1  Pet.  iii.  19  is  the 
pre-existent  Christ,  represented  (as  the  first 
readers  presumably  knew)  by  Enoch,  or 
whether  we  are  to  follow  Dr  Rendel  Harris,^ 
and  read  eV  S  koI  Evcox,  "  in  which  also  Enoch 
(went  and  made  proclamation)."  The  "  spirits 
in  ward "  (rot?  iv  (f)v\aKrj  Trvevixaa-iv)  will 
probably  be  the  fallen  angels,  of  whom  the 
so-called  Book  of  Enoch  has  so  much  to  say.^ 
I  have  spoken  of  the  statement  of  the 
Descent  of  Christ  into  the  Underworld  as 
having  a  mythological  origin.  What,  then, 
is  this  origin?  The  question  can  now  be 
answered   with  a   probability  which    will,    I 

^  See    Baldensperger,    Die    Messianisch  -  apokalyptischen 
Hojffnungen,  pp.  17/. 

2  See  his  article  in  the  Expositor ^  April  1901.     Obviously 
Evwx  might  easily  fall  out  after  iv  w. 

3  See  Dr  Charles's  Commentary. 


no  Bible  Problems 

suspect,  go  on  increasing.  And  the  explana- 
tion is  that  underlying  such  accounts  is  the 
observation  that  from  time  to  time  certain 
of  the  heavenly  "  lights,'*  and  more  especially 
the  sun,  become  invisible.^ 

The  parallel  Egyptian  accounts  (of  which 
Osiris  and  the  justified  Osirian  souls  are 
the  heroes),  not  less  than  the  Babylonian 
"Descent  of  Istar,"  and  the  stories  of  the 
Descent  into  the  Underworld  of  heroes  Uke 
Ea-bani  and  Gilgames,  besides  the  Greek 
myth  of  Persephone,  and  the  so-called 
descents  into  Hades  ^  (/caraySaoreis  els  "AtSov), 
ultimately  have  the  same  origin,  i,e,  were 
suggested  by  the  same  primitive  myth. 

One  important  detail  still  remains  to  be 
accounted  for.  According  to  Matt.  xii.  40 
(a  valuable  early  Christian  statement,  see  Note 
X.),  the  period  occupied  by  the  Descent  of 
Christ  was  three  full  days  and  nights.  The 
evangelical  traditions  too  sometimes  speak  of 

1  Cp.  Zimmem,  K.A.T.,  3rd  ed.,  p.  388. 

2  Cp.  Dieterich,  Eine  Mithrasliturgie,  p.  182. 


New  Testament  iii 

our  Lord  as  rising  "  after   three   days "    {e,g. 
Matt,  xxvii.  63),  though  sometimes  (compare 
the  parallel  case  of  the  festival  of  Osiris)  they 
say  that  the  Resurrection  was  to  take   place 
"on  the    third    day"    {e,g.    Matt.    xvi.    21). 
Similar  definitions  of  time  to  that  in  Matt.  xii. 
40  are  often  given  in  traditional  religious  state- 
ments.    Jonah's  three  days  in  the   fish   have 
been  already  mentioned.     In  Rev.  xii.  14  the 
Messiah's  mother  is  said  to  have  been  "  nour- 
ished for  a  time  and  times  and  half  a  time," 
which  is  parallel  to  statements  in  Dan.  vii.  25 
and  xii.  7.     In  Rev.  xi.  9,  11  the  two  witnesses 
slain  by  the  dragon  lie  dead  for  three  days  and 
a  half,  and  then  arise  and  ascend  to  heaven. 
In  the  Mandaean  story,  Manda  d'Hayye  (the 
father  of  the  divine  Hero  already  referred  to) 
is  called  a  "  little  boy  of  three  years  and  one 
day."  ^     In  the  Greek  myth  of  Leto  (see  Note 
II.),  Apollo   slays   the   serpent  Pytho  on  the 
fourth  day  after  his  birth,  and  in  the  cultus  of 
the  Phrygian  deity  Attis  the  festival  of  his 

^  Brandt,  Mand'dische  Religion,  pp.  218^1 


112  Bible  Problems 

resurrection  takes  place  on  the  fourth  day- 
after  the  lamentations  over  his  death. 

Nor  ought  I  to  leave  unmentioned  that  the 
duration  of  such  a  period  as  is  referred  to  in 
Dan.  vii.  25  and  xii.  7  is  given  in  a  Babylonian 
text  as  three  months,  ten  days,  and  half  a 
day.^ 

It  is  not  very  difficult  to  account  for  the 
three  months  (or  three  months  and  a  little 
more)  in  some  of  these  statements.  From 
our  present  point  of  vievi^,  it  means  the  period 
from  the  winter  solstice  to  the  vernal  equinox  ^ 
— a  most  fit  symbol  for  the  afllictive  domina- 
tion of  the  powers  of  evil  upon  earth.  But  can 
we  explain  the  three  days  in  the  same  way  ? 
Some     explanation     certainly    is    demanded. 

1  These  parallels  are  given  by  Gunkel  (Zu7n  religiosen 
Verstandniss,  etc.,  pp.  80-82),  except  the  last  but  one, 
which  comes  from  Pfleiderer  {Das  Ckristusbild,  p.  69,  note 
1).  For  the  last  see  Zimmern  (K.A.T.,  3rd  ed.,  p.  389), 
who  also  mentions  the  three  days  of  the  Adonis-festival 
in  spring.  On  Attis  and  Adonis  a  general  reference  must 
suffice  to  Frazer's  learned  and  acute  Golden  Bough. 

2  Cp.  Gunkel,  Schopfung,  p.  390;  Zimmern,  K.A.T., 
3rd  ed.,  p.  389. 


New  Testament  113 

The  apostle  Paul,  when  he  says  (1  Cor.  xv. 
3,  4)  that  Christ  died  and  that  He  rose  again 
"according  to  the  Scriptures,"  in  reality 
points  to  a  pre-Christian  sketch  of  the  Ufe 
of  Christ,  partly — as  we  have  seen — derived 
from  widely-spread  non-Jewish  myths,  and 
embodied  in  Jewish  writings.^  May  we  hold 
that  the  statement  "three  days  and  three 
nights"  was  taken  from  one  such  myth,  and 
the  statement  "  two  days "  (implied  in  "  on 
the  third  day")  from  another?^  And,  to 
account  for  the  three  days,  may  we  suppose 
that  this  specification  is  merely  a  modification 
of  the  three  months,  Le.  that  it  meant  originally 
the  period  of  winter?  The  sense  produced 
would  certainly  be  a  good  one,  viz.  that  while 
the  gracious,  kindly  God,  or  divine  Hero,  is 
in  the  nether  world  the  upper  world  of  men, 

^  See  Note  xi.,  p.  252. 

2  J.  M.  Robertson's  Christianity  and  Mythology  was  not 
at  hand  when  the  above  was  written.  He  says  (p.  405, 
n.  7),  "The  confusion  of  the  Gospels  as  to  the  time 
between  Jesus'  death  and  resurrection  is  doubtless  due  to 
the  fact  that  other  cults  varied  in  this  respect."  It  is  only 
just  to  Robertson  to  mention  this. 

8 


114  Bible  Problems 

undergoes  a  winter  of  misery.  But  I  think 
that  we  are  bound  to  look  further,  and  seek 
for  another  solution  of  the  problem  which 
will  adequately  account  for  the  "  three  days." 
May  not  Prof.  Winckler  be  right  in  suppos- 
ing that  the  three  days  were  borrowed  from 
another  myth  relative  to  the  moon-god,  and 
that  originally  they  were  the  days  during 
which,  near  the  time  of  the  new  moon  in 
spring,  the  moon  becomes  invisible?^  The 
same  scholar  is  also  of  opinion  that  the  forty 
days  between  the  Resurrection  and  the 
Ascension  of  Christ  ^  may  originally  {i.e.  in  a 
pre-Christian  myth  out  of  which  the  Jewish 
and  Christian  representations  grew)  have 
meant  the  forty  days  during  which,  as  the 
ancients  well  knew,  the  Pleiades  become 
invisible.^     In  this  case  the  forty  days  of  the 

^  Geschichte  Israels,  ii.  84 ;  cp.  Zimmem,  op.  city  pp.  362, 
sm,  384,  389. 

2  Acts  i.  3,  the  only  passage  where  the  interval  is 
specified. 

8  On  the  importance  of  the  Pleiades  in  antiquity,  see 
Winckler,  op.  cit,  p.  83,  and  cp.  Enc.  Bihlica,  col.  4781. 


New  Testament  115 

evangelical  tradition  were  properly  the  inter- 
val between  the  death  and  the  resurrection  of 
Christ ;  Le,  from  a  purely  archaeological  point 
of  view,  the  Resurrection  and  the  Ascension 
were  one  and  the  same  thing.^  In  fact,  the 
resurrection  and  ascension  of  the  solar  heroes 
were  naturally  identical,  and  the  archaeological 
theory  here  expounded  is  that  myths  of  solar 
deities  supplied  details  for  the  close  of  that 
story  of  the  Messiah,  which,  according  to  a 
highly  satisfying  theory,  preceded  the  appear- 
ance of  the  Christ  of  history. 

But  I  cannot  and  ought  not  to  leave  this 
important  matter  here.  In  spite  of  a  Church- 
man's natural  inclination  to  a  reverential 
reticence,  I  am  bound  to  say  that  the  form 
of  the  spiritual  truth  of  Christ's  Resurrection 
and  Ascension  can  be  explained  by  archaeology. 
Provisionally  and  tentatively  it  may  be  possible 
to  explain  the  form  in  each  case  as  a  postulate 
of  faith,  but  in  the  light  of  what  has  been 
shown  to  be  the  probable  origin  of  the  form 

^  Zimmem  expresses  this  view  {pp.  cit,  p.  389). 


ii6  Bible  Problems 

of  the  belief  in  the  Descent,  we  cannot  con- 
sider this  explanation  very  plausible.  That 
there  are  mythic  parallels  for  the  statement 
(less  emphasized  in  our  documents  than  we 
might  have  expected)  of  the  Ascension  is 
beyond  question.  Not  to  dwell  on  the  myths 
of  Adonis  and  Heracles,  the  Babylonian  solar 
deities  who  *' descend"  (arddu)  necessarily 
"ascend"  (elu)  afterwards.  There  are  also 
Ascensions  which  are  not  preceded  by  Descents 
into  the  Underworld,  e.g.,  that  of  Mithra  the 
solar  deity,^  so  famous  in  later  times.  One 
is  also  reminded  of  the  Babylonian  story  of 
Etana,^  the  proud  boast  of  Israel's  oppressor 
in  Isa.  xiv.  13,  and  the  Egyptian  state- 
ments (which,  as  1  have  noticed,  occur 
already  in  the  Pyramid  Texts)  of  the  ascent 
of  the   Egyptian  kings    into    heaven.^      Nor 

1  See  Dieterich,  Eine  Mithrasliturgie  (1903)^  p.  184. 

2  See  Ziuameriij  K.A.T.,  3rd  ed._,  pp.  564i  fi;  Jastrow, 
Rel.  of  Bab.  and  Ass.,  pp.  519  ffi 

3  Cp.  the  popular  stories  of  the  translation  of  Romulus 
and  of  Alexander  the  Great  (without  death),  and  of  Julius 
and  Augustus  Caesar  (after  death). 


New  Testament  117 

must  one  be  debarred  from  mentioning  the 
Old  Testament  stories  of  Enoch  ^  and  EUjah, 
and  the  ascensions  spoken  of  imaginatively  in 
later  Jewish  literature  (Moses,  Levi,  Isaiah), 
together  with  the  definite  statement  in  the 
Apocalypse  of  Baruch  (xxx.  1)  that  the 
Messiah  "shall  return  into  glory." ^  Must 
we  not  therefore  admit  that  the  Ascension, 
like  the  Descent,  is  a  wide-spread  form  of 
belief,  and  that  this  form  of  belief  is  ultimately 
derived  from  a  primitive  Oriental  myth  ? 

If  so,  does  it  not  at  once  become  probable 
that  the  form  of  the  behef  in  (or  spiritual 
truth  of)  the  Resurrection  of  Christ  is  also  of 
mythic  origin  ?     I  am  aware  that  some  learned 

1  See  Encyclopaedia  Bihlica,  ^^  Enoch."  The  popular 
tendency  to  believe  in  ascensions  appears  in  Deut.  xxx.  12, 
^^Who  shall  go  up  for  us  to  heaven/'  and  Assumption  of 
MoseSj  X.  9^  **  And  God  will  exalt  thee,  and  He  will  cause 
thee  to  approach  to  the  heaven  of  the  stars"  (cp.  Isa. 
xiv.  13). 

2  Cp.  Charles,  ad  loc. ;  Baldensperger,  Die  Messianisch- 
apokalypt.  Hojffnungen,  p.  164,  note  1.  Both  Charles  and 
Ryssel  (in  Kautzsch's  German  Apocrypha)  render  "in 
glory."  But  surely  "  into  glory  "  gives  the  writer's  meaning 
better. 


ii8  Bible  Problems 

Anglican  theologians  consider  the  Resurrection 
of  our  Lord  to  be  not  merely  a  matter  of  faith 
but  a  historically  proved  fact.  I  will  not  now 
enter  upon  an  examination  of  passages  which 
has  been  made  often  enough,  but  simply  ask, 
Have  these  theologians  given  a  long  study  to 
Oriental  mythology  ?  This  is  a  subject  which 
cannot  be  taken  up  profitably  under  compulsion ; 
rather  it  is  one  which  the  student  must  grow 
into  by  degrees.  We  cannot  on  this  ground 
venture  to  neglect  it,  but  we  ought  not  to  be 
hasty  in  forming  conclusions  respecting  it. 
Without  claiming  infallibility,  I  hope  that  I 
have  complied  with  the  necessary  conditions, 
and  won  the  right  to  express  a  judgment  on 
the  theory  before  us.  I  hold,  then,  that  the 
form  of  the  statement  of  our  Lord's  Resurrec- 
tion does,  from  an  archaeological  point  of  view, 
appear  to  be  of  mythic  origin.  But  this  is  far 
from  exhausting  my  meaning.  As  a  student 
of  religion,  I  distinguish  between  the  form  of 
the  truth  that  is  believed  and  the  very  truth 
itself.     I  lay  no  small  stress  upon  this,  but  I 


New  Testament  119 

must  not  say  more  at  present,  because  I  have 
first  to  mention  those  mythic  stories  of 
resurrection  with  which  the  outward  form 
of  the  Gospel  narratives  of  the  Resurrection 
of  Christ  must  inevitably  be  compared. 

Here,  as  in  other  cases,  it  is  highly  im- 
portant to  limit  our  field  of  investigation. 
Our  instances  shall  be  taken  from  Babylonia, 
Egypt,  Phoenicia,  and  Phrygia.  The  Baby- 
lonian deity  of  the  springtide  sun  (Marduk), 
who  died,  also  rose  again ;  his  chief  festival 
went  by  the  name  of  the  "standing  up" 
{tabu)}  It  was  the  festival  of  the  New  Year 
at  the  time  of  the  vernal  equinox.  Resurrec- 
tion too  enters  into  the  elaborate  Egyptian 
myth  of  Osiris,  who  after  a  violent  death 
lived  on  (as  the  sun  of  yesterday  lives  on  in 
the  sun  of  to-day)  in  the  person  of  his  son 
Horus.     Adonis   and  Attis  also  were  said  to 

1  Zimmem,  op.  ciL,  p.  371.  The  beautiful  epithet  of 
Marduk,  '^^  who  loveth  to  make  the  dead  to  live/'  according 
to  Zimmern,  is  not  a  reference  to  the  possibility  of  a 
resurrection,  but  means  "who  loveth  to  heal  those  who 
are  sick  unto  death." 


I20  Bible  Problems 

have  revived  after  death,  and,  Hke  Osiris  and 
Marduk,  were  honoured  by  yearly  festivals. 

Surely  it  must  be  clear  (1)  that  the  view 
presented  of  the  possible  origin  of  this  form 
of  belief  is  not  exposed  to  the  objections 
raised  to  the  various  vision-hypotheses,  and 
(2)  that  the  hold  which  the  bodily  resurrec- 
tion of  Jesus  Christ  obtained  upon  the  Church 
can  now  be  plausibly  accounted  for. 

Now  too  we  can  perhaps  more  easily  account 
for  the  early  Christian  transformation  of  the 
sense  of  certain  Old  Testament  passages,  such 
as  Isa.  liii.  10  and  Ps.  xvi.  10.  The  transforma- 
tion seems  to  have  been  unconsciously  effected, 
and  in  the  first  instance  by  the  Jews  to  justify 
the  belief  in  the  Messiah's  resurrection  derived 
from  a  wide-spread  mythic  tradition.  The 
Christians  (see  1  Cor.  xv.  4  and  parallels)  only 
followed  the  example  of  the  Jews.  It  was 
natural  that  both  Jews  and  Christians  should 
look  out  for  previsions  of  this  great  event  in 
the  Scriptures,  the  received  interpretation  of 
prophecy  having  become  largely  eschatological. 


New  Testament  121 

In  speaking  of"  the  Jews,"  I  mean,  of  course, 
not  the  whole  community  or  its  official  leaders, 
but  only  a  certain  section  of  the  people. 

It  is  perfectly  right  to  ask  how  the  Christian 
faith  is  affected  by  this  hypothesis.  To  this  it 
may  frankly  be  answered  that  it  is  not  affected 
at  all.  The  discovery  that  a  form  of  belief  is 
of  non-historical  origin  {i,e,  belongs  to  another 
sphere  than  that  of  history)  has  nothing  to  do 
with  the  truth  or  falsehood  of  the  belief  itself 
Whatever  else  can  be  subverted  by  criticism, 
the  beUef  in  the  resurrection  of  Christ  is  safe. 
More  than  this  I  need  not  say  now.  It  is 
time  that  I  should  attempt  to  show  what  is 
the  essence  of  the  three  companion-beliefs,  the 
Descent,  the  Resurrection,  and  the  Ascension, 
— that  essence  which,  to  a  fair-minded  student, 
is  independent  of  criticism.  In  order  to  run 
the  least  risk  of  alienating  those  whom  I  desire 
to  carry  with  me,  I  shall  borrow  all  that  I  can 
from  a  supreme  Christian  poet,  and  something 
too  from  a  singularly  open-minded  Roman 
CathoUc  writer  of  our  own  day.     If  Father 


122  Bible  Problems 

Tyrrell  can  display  such  truly  Christian 
candour  and  such  reverence  for  historical  facts, 
no  one  can  take  offence  if  I  too,  as  a  Christian 
historian,  seek  to  manifest  these  qualities,  and 
if,  going  (I  hope  I  may  say)  only  a  little  be- 
yond him,  I  draw  a  distinction  between  a  semi- 
mythic  narrative  and  the  spiritual  truths,  or 
beliefs,  to  which,  at  the  period  of  the  formation 
of  Christianity,  it  gave  the  necessary  vehicle. 

First,  as  to  the  Descent  into  Hades.  If  the 
form  of  this  belief  is  ultimately  a  mjrth,  it  is 
at  any  rate,  as  transfigured  by  Christians,  a 
very  significant  myth.  The  leading  idea  of  it 
seems  to  me  to  be  that  Christ,  to  whom 
(according  to  the  grand  conception  of  the 
primitive  Christians)  the  Crucifixion  was  not 
a  defeat  but  a  victory,  would  not  be  glorified 
alone,  but  determined  to  be  accompanied  by  a 
multitude  of  righteous  spirits.  According  to 
this  view  the  Descent  into  Hades  is  only  the 
first  stage  of  the  Ascension — of  an  Ascen- 
sion in  which  Christ  was  certainly  the  most 
prominent  but  not  the  only  figure.     To  show 


New  Testament  123 

this  a  supreme  poet  was  required,  and  this  poet 
we  have  in  the  author  of  the  Divine  Comedy, 
It  is  hardly  too  much  to  say  that  no  prose 
description  could  possibly  equal  the  grandeur 
of  the  third  and  fourth  lines  of  the  following 
passage,  at  least  in  the  original : —  ^ 

Then  he^  to  whom  my  covert  thought  was  known. 

Gave  answer :  I  had  lately  reached  this  round. 
When  lo  !  arrived  a  great  and  glorious  Guest, 
Whose  head  with  wreath  of  victory  was  crowned. 

The  soul  of  man's  first  Parent  hence  he  drew, 
Abel  his  son,  and  also  Noah's  shade, 
Moses  the  lawgiver,  and,  just  and  true. 

The  Patriarch  Abraham ;  David, — Israel, 

His  father,  and  his  sons  that  call  obeyed, 
And|Rachel  fair,  whose  love  he  earned  so  well. 

For  these  and  many  others  grace  he  gained  : 

Know — that  till  these  with  happiness  were  blest. 
No  human  souls  salvation  e'er  obtained. 

Underneath  this  fine  description  lies  the  very 

1  Inferno,  canto  iv.,  lines  51-54,  Wright's  translation. 
The  lines  specially  referred  to  above  for  their  grandeur 
occur  in  the  speech  of  Virgil  in  reply  to  a  question  put 
by  Dante.     The  devout  Roman  poet  answers, — 

(Rispose  :)  lo  era  nuovo  in  questo  stato, 
Quando  ci  vidi  venire  un  possente 
Con  segno  di  vittoria  incoronato. 


124  Bible  Problems 

idea  which,  according  to  Mr  Tyrrell,  consti- 
tutes the  special  religious  value  of  the  belief  in 
the  Descent,  viz.  "  that  Christ  is  the  redeemer 
of  all  men  from  the  beginning  to  the  end ; 
one  whose  day  even  Abraham  rejoiced  to  see  ; 
that  He  is  the  realization  of  the  dreams  of  the 
old-world  seers  and  prophets."^ 

Next,  as  to  the  Ascension.  We  have 
seen  that  the  form  of  this  belief,  being 
the  correlative  of  that  of  the  Descent  (cp. 
Eph.  iv.  9),  may  very  possibly  be  of  mjrthic 
origin.  If  this  be  accepted,  we  have  to 
consider  what  is  the  essential  underlying 
truth.  Let  us,  then,  suppose  that,  by  a 
mystery  of  heavenly  wisdom,  a  star-spirit  has 
disappeared  in  the  underworld  ;  what  follows 
from  this?  Surely  to  an  ancient  believer  in 
myths  it  would  be  self-evident  that  the  star- 
spirit  will  at  length  reappear  in  the  heaven  to 
which  he  belongs.  Using  this  as  a  symbol  of 
religious  thought,  does  not  the  Christian  con- 
science affirm  that  if  a  personality,  filled  with 

1  Tyrrell,  hex  Orandi,  p.  181. 


New  Testament  125 

the  divine  Spirit,  passes  out  of  sight,  it  must 
afterwards  again  become  visible,  and  this  time 
in  all  its  beauty  and  resplendent  majesty,  in 
"Jerusalem  that  is  above,  which  is  our 
mother"  (Gal.  iv.  26,  Revised  Version)? 
And  if,  from  the  same  point  of  view,  we 
regard  this  mythically  expressed  statement 
as  the  symbol  of  an  inward  experience,  must 
we  not  say — slightly  altering  and  expanding 
Mr  Tyrrell's  words  ^ — that  "  the  exaltation  of 
humanity  through  the  death  of  self-sacrifice  " 
is  "  embodied  and  set  forth  symbolically  in  the 
phenomenal  order "  in  the  crown  of  all  the 
Ascension  stories,  the  narrative  of  the  Ascen- 
sion of  Christ  ?  ^  Such  an  idea,  for  which  Eph. 
ii.  1,6  may  be  compared,  appears  to  me  to  give 
a  still  richer  meaning  to  the  narrative,  and  it  is 
certainly  unaffected  by  the  mythological  origin 
which  the  new  school  would  now  assign  to  it. 
Lastly,  as  to  the  Resurrection.     Here  too  I 

1  Lex  Or  audi,  p.  184. 

2  Mark  xvi.  19  (in  the  appended  passage  ;  see  Enc.  Bihl., 
cols.  1767,  1880),  Luke  xxiv.  51,  Acts  i.  9-11;  cp.  Luke 
ix.  51,  John  xx.  17. 


126  Bible  Problems 

can  only  venture  to  report,  so  far  as  I  am  able, 
the  affirmations  of  the  Christian  conscience. 
First,  then,  among  the  truths  affirmed  by  that 
conscience  is  the  uniqueness  of  Jesus  Christ's 
personality,  from  which  follows,  by  a  necessary 
inference  of  faith,  its  indestructibility.  Apart 
from  all  theological  formulations,  it  remains 
true  to  the  Christian  that  One  who  was  in 
such  close  and  constant  communion  with  God, 
and  had  such  keen  spiritual  insight,  and  such 
potent  spiritual  influence,  could  not  become 
like  a  quenched  lamp,  or  be  reduced  to  the 
shadowy,  negative  existence  assigned  to  the 
departed  by  the  later  Jews.  Those  who  draw 
the  above  necessary  inference  will  naturally 
go  on  to  regard  the  spiritual  Resurrection  of 
Christ  (which  they  also  infer)  as  involving  the 
spiritual  resurrection  of  His  followers,  and  at 
the  same  time  as  a  symbol  of  the  new  moral 
life  of  redeemed  humanity  and  of  each  of  its 
members^  (cp.  Eph.  ii.  1,  5f, ;  Col.  ii.  12/!). 
Others,  however,  will  go  still  further,  and 

^  Cp.  Tyrrellj  op.  ciL,  p.  184. 


New  Testament  127 

affirm  that  a  body  is  necessary  to  the  integrity 
of  human  nature,  from  which  they  will  infer 
the  bodily  Resurrection  both  of  Christ  and  of 
His  followers.  This  surely  is  the  affirmation 
of  the  ordinary  Christian  conscience.  How 
this  is  possible,  conscience  cannot  say.  The 
favourite  theory,^  that  the  human  spirit  after 
death  will  be  free  to  organize  a  suitable 
spiritual  body  from  its  new  environment,  does 
not  belong  to  the  sphere  of  the  conscience, 
which,  however,  by  one  of  faith's  inferences, 
may  affirm  the  resurrection-body  of  Christ  to 
have  been  suitably  glorious,  and  to  be  typical 
of  that  of  His  true  followers. 

All  this  is,  of  course,  absolutely  unaffected 
by  archaeological  criticism  of  the  form  of  the 
Christian  belief  in  the  Lord's  Resurrection. 
The  great  question  is  whether  we  have  that 
faith  in  Jesus  which  enables  us  to  infer  from 
His  spiritual  nature,  as  represented  in  the 
Synoptic  Gospels,  that  He  must  have  "  passed 

1  On  St  Paul's  teaching,  see  Prof.  Charles,  Encyclopcedia 
Biblica,  "  Eschatology,"  §  99- 


128  Bible  Problems 

from  death  unto  life  " — unto  a  new  and  glorious 
life  with  His  heavenly  Father.  If  criticism 
claims  perfect  liberty,  so  also  does  the  Christian 
conscience,  and  such  inferences  of  faith  as  I 
have  described  cannot  be  overthrown  by 
criticism. 

To  sum  up  what  I  have  been  saying  last. 
The  four  forms  of  Christian  belief  which  we 
have  been  considering  are  the  Virgin-birth  of 
Jesus  Christ,  His  Descent  into  the  nether 
world.  His  Resurrection,  and  His  Ascension. 
On  the  ground  of  facts  supplied  by  archaeology, 
it  is  plausible  to  hold  that  all  these  arose  out 
of  a  pre-Christian  sketch  of  the  life,  death,^ 
and  exaltation  of  the  expected  Messiah,  itself 
ultimately  derived  from  a  widely  current 
mjrthic  tradition  respecting  a  solar  deity. 
There  is,  of  course,  nothing  disparaging  to 
the  Christian  beliefs  in  such  a  theory,  for 
before  this  tradition  had  been  (in  part)  appro- 
priated by  pious  Jews  (from  whom  it  passed 
to  the  followers  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth)  it  was 
1  See  Note  xi.,  p.  252. 


New  Testament  129 

already,  by  a  natural  fitness — or  shall  we  say  ? — 
by  a  divine  overruling,  becoming  on  a  small 
scale  the  story  of  a  divine  Redeemer.     Still 
the  Christianized  story  of  the  opening  and  the 
closing  scenes  of  the  earthly  life  of  the  Re- 
deemer has  acquired  a  special  right  of  existence 
through  the  essential  Christian  truths  enshrined 
in  it.     To  these  truths,  which   required  and 
found   a    suitable    casket,   the    faith    of    the 
Christian  is  pledged.     The  chief  of  them  are, — 
the  uniqueness  of  the  personality  of  the  Lord 
Jesus,  and  the  immense  worth  of  His  act  of 
absolute  self-sacrifice;  then,  by  inference,  the 
indestructibleness  of  His  personality,  its  per- 
petual redemptive  capacity,  and  its   identity 
with    that    manward    aspect    of   the   Divine 
Nature,  so  full  of  mingled  grandeur  and  com- 
passion, which,  by  early  efforts  of  theological 
thought,  acquired  the  names  of  the  Messiah, 
the  Son  of  God,  the  Word  of  God.     If  this 
explanation   be    wrong,   let    a    theory   which 
accounts   better  for  all  the  various  facts  be 

brought  forward.     If,  however,  it  commends 

9 


130  Bible  Problems 

itself  to  those  who  would  fain  adjust  our 
Church  to  the  progress  of  knowledge,  let  it 
be  viewed  in  all  its  bearings,  corrected  and 
improved,  and  then  allowed  to  form  part  of 
the  common  heritage  of  educated  Christian 
people. 


PART   III 

Not  long  ago  I  was  speaking  of  the  statement 
of  the  Virgin-Birth  of  Christ,  and  the  slight 
attestation  it  receives  in  the  earliest  Christian 
records.  The  discovery  which  I  have  next  to 
mention  has  a  close  bearing  on  this  subject. 
It  belongs  to  the  domain  of  textual  criticism, 
which  some  of  those  who  are  fond  of  large 
views  are  perhaps  too  much  inclined  to  neglect. 
They  forget  that  without  textual  criticism  the 
large  views  of  historical  essayists  would  lack 
an  assured  basis,  and  their  conclusions  be 
involved  in  uncertainty.  The  time,  however, 
has  come  when  all  students  must  take  more 
account  of  textual  criticism,  and  recognize 
that  a  new  day  has  dawned  upon  it.  I  cannot 
help  thinking  that  even  the  popular  mind  has 

181 


132  Bible  Problems 

begun  to  suspect  what  is  happening,  thanks 
to  this  discovery.  You  will  guess  what  it  is 
when  I  add  the  names  of  the  discoverers, 
Mrs  Gibson  and  Mrs  Lewis.  In  the  Syriac 
manuscript  found  by  these  two  learned 
Cambridge  ladies  in  the  library  of  the  Sinai 
convent,  and  published  by  them  in  1894,  this 
is  how  the  last  error  in  the  first  of  the  two 
genealogies  of  Jesus  Christ  was  found  to  run : 
"  Jacob  begat  Joseph ;  Joseph,  to  whom 
was  betrothed  Mary  the  virgin,  begat  Jesus, 
who  is  called  the  Christ"  (Matt.  i.  16). 

The  discovery  is  certainly  a  valuable  one, 
but  some  popular  writers  in  1894  exaggerated 
its  degree  of  importance,  when  they  ventured 
to  surmise  that  we  had  at  last  found  out 
the  original  text  of  the  passage.  Not  much 
experience  is  required  to  suggest  caution. 
"To  whom  was  betrothed  Mary  the  virgin," 
and  "who  is  called  the  Christ,"  have  all  the 
appearance  of  being  parenthetical  insertions. 
It  so  happens  that  we  have  long  had  a  mass  of 
variants   which   also  point  back  to  an  earlier 


New  Testament  continued     133 

textual  type  than  that  represented  by  the 
official  text,  but  which  were  almost  useless,^ 
for  want  of  a  sufficient  amount  of  insight  on 
the  part  of  critics  in  general.  Fortunately, 
however,  by  the  time  that  the  Gibson- 
Lewis  manuscript  was  published,  textual 
criticism  had  made  such  advances  that  special 
scholars  were  able  to  make  the  most  of  it  in 
connexion  with  the  previously  existing  critical 
material.^ 

That  the  original  text  was  distinctly 
Ebionite,  ie,  that  it  was  the  work  of  one 
who  believed  that  our  Lord  was  the  son  of 
Joseph,^  cannot  be  liable  to  doubt.  In  this  re- 
spect it  agrees  with  the  genealogy  in  Luke  iii. 

1  See  Encyclopcedia  Bihlica,  "Mary/'  i.,  §§  13,  14,  and 
cp.  "  Gospels/'  §  22. 

2  See  the  correspondence  in  the  Academy,  from  Nov.  17^ 
1894,  to  June  19^  1895;  also  Conybeare,  Hibbert  Journal, 
vol.  i.  (1902-1903),  pp.  96-102. 

8  Irenaeus  (iii.  21,  1)  says  that  the  Ebionites  declared 
Jesus  to  have  been  the  son  of  Joseph,  following  those  who 
interpreted  "virgin"  in  Isa.  vii.  14  as  "young  woman," 
and  Eusebius  (Hist.  Eccles.,  vi.  17)  that  Symmachus  the 
Ebionite  rests  his  heresy  on  Matthew's  Gospel.  See 
especially  Encyclopcedia  Biblica,  "Mary,"  i.,  §  15. 


134  Bible  Problems 

23-38 ;  ^  for  no  critical  student  can  fail  to  see 
that  the  text  of  v,  23  has  been  interfered  with 
in  various  ways,  and  originally  stated  positively 
that  Jesus  was  the  son  of  Joseph.^  It  is  right 
to  add  that  "  there  survive  even  now  traces  of 
a  dislocation  between  them  and  the  Gospels 
in  which  they  are  incorporated."  Indeed, 
any  reader  can  see  that  the  First  Gospel  begins 
best  with  "  The  birth  of  Jesus  Christ  was  on 
this  wise,"  and  that  Luke  iii.  32,  "  And  the 
Holy  Spirit  descended  .  .  .  upon  him,"  is 
followed  most  naturally  by  "And  Jesus,  full 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  returned  from  Jordan." 
If,  however,  we  remove  the  genealogies,  there 
is  no  trace  left  in  those  two  Gospels  of  the 
representation  of  the  true  Messiah  as  born 
of  a  virgin.  Yet  who  can  say  that  the  view 
of  Jesus   Christ  that  they  give  is   not  one 

1  Dr  A.  Wright  remarks  that  the  genealogies  in 
Matthew  and  Luke  "  seem  to  have  been  the  work  of 
Hebrew  Christians^  probably  of  Ebionites"  {Synopsis  of 
the   Gospels  in  Greek,  p.  257). 

2  See  Encyclopcedia  Biblica,  "Gospels/'  §  22;  "Mary/'  i., 
§  7j  with  note  1 . 


New  Testament  continued     135 

that   touches   the   heart   and  may  transfigure 
the  life? 

For  two  companion  facts  of  textual  criti- 
cism I  will  go  to  Mr  Conybeare.  This 
zealous  Oxford  scholar  has  produced  from  the 
so-called  "Dialogue  of  Timothy  and  Aquila"^ 
a  fresh  confirmation  of  the  view  that  the 
original  reading  in  the  first  of  the  two  gene- 
alogies was  simply  "  and  Jacob  begat  Joseph, 
and  Joseph  begat  Jesus,  who  is  called  Christ." 
This  is  in  fact  cited  by  Aquila  the  Jew  as  the 
text  of  the  passage  in  Matthew,  only  after 
"  begat  Joseph  "  the  text  of  the  Dialogue  gives 
"the  husband  of  Mary,  of  whom  was  born 
Jesus  who  is  called  Christ."  Mr  Conybeare 
has  also  shown  that  Eusebius  quotes  that 
famous  passage  Matt,  xxviii.  19  at  least 
eighteen  (one  may  now  say  twenty-five) 
times  in  the  form  "  Go  ye,  and  make  disciples 
of  all  nations  in  my  name,"  without  the  words 

1  Edited  by  Conybeare^  Anecdota  Oxoniensia  Classica, 
8th  series,  1898,  p.  76;  cp.  pp.  xix-xxii.  See  Schmiedel's 
criticism,  Encycl.  Biblica,  ''Mary,"  i.,  §  13. 


136  Bible  Problems 

"  baptizing  them  in  the  name  of  the  Father, 
and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Spirit."  ^  He 
has  moreover  shown  reason  to  beheve  that 
both  Aphraates  and  Justin  Martyr  were 
ignorant  of  the  now  generally  received  read- 
ing,^ and  he  has  offered  the  very  probable 
conjecture  that  the  words  referred  to  are 
an  interpolation  which  was  first  made  in  the 
African  text  of  the  Gospel,  and  which  after- 
wards spread  to  other  local  texts. 

Surely  this  could  not  be  omitted  in  a  survey 
of  some  of  the  new  facts  which  appear  to 
justify  a  more  searching  criticism  of  the  Bible. 
As  Professor  Kirsopp  Lake,  in  his  recent 
inaugural  lecture,  remarks, — 

We  shall  have  to  consider,  for  instance,  in  the  case  of 
the  catholic  custom  and  doctrine  of  Baptism,  how  far  it  is 
really  based  on  the  interpolated  (if  it  be  interpolated)  text 

^  See  Conybeare,  Zeitschrift  fiir  die  neutestamentliche 
Wissenschaft,  I9OI,  pp.  275^.;  Hihbert  Journal,!.,  1902, 
pp.   102  # 

2  Cp.  Diettrich,  Die  nestorianische  Taufliturgie  (1903), 
where,  in  confirmation  of  Conybeare's  view,  it  is  pointed 
out  that  the  baptismal  liturgy  of  the  Nestorians  is  without 
the  passage  Matt,  xxviii.  I9. 


New  Testament  continued     137 

of  Matt,  xxviii.  19,  and  how  far  it  is  independent.  That 
baptism  is  a  primitive  and  catholic  custom  is  beyond  all 
question.  It  has  been  usual  to  trace  the  origin  of  that 
custom  to  Christ's  commands  as  reported  in  Matt,  xxviii. 
19  and  Mark  xvi.  I6.  If  textual  criticism  really  makes  it 
doubtful  that  those  passages  are  part  of  the  original  text^ 
then  it  is  clearly  the  duty  of  the  student  of  early  Christian 
literature  to  ask  whether  there  is  any  other  evidence  that 
baptism  was  ordained  by  Christ,  and  whether  the  sugges- 
tion is  not  worth  consideration  that  baptism  was  a  Jewish 
custom,  sanctioned  by  Christ  as  an  initiatory  ceremony, 
and  regarded  by  the  early  Church  as  a  necessary  and 
essential  rite.i 

Said  I  not  right  that  a  new  day  is  dawning 
on  the  textual  criticism  of  the  New  Testament, 
and  may  I  not  hope  that  here,  as  in  all  other 
branches  of  study,  the  pain  attendant  on  the 
removal  of  prejudices  will  be  the  precursor  of 
a  keen  delight  in  a  fuller  revelation  of  historical 
reality  ? 

Such  are  a  few  of  the  new  facts  bearing  on 
the  criticism  of  the  New  Testament.  I  have 
mentioned  only  those  that  have  some  special 
interest  for  ordinary   Bible   students   at    the 

1  The  Infiuence  of  Textual  Criticism  on  the  Exegesis  of  the 
New  Testament :  an  Inaugural  Lecture  delivered  before  the 
University  of  Leiden,  on  January  27,  1904,  by  Kirsopp 
Lake  (Oxford,  1904),  pp.  22  f. 


138  Bible  Problems 

present  moment,  and  for  the  most  part  those 
which  have  some  relation  to  studies  of  my 
own.  To  New  Testament  arehagology  in  the 
usual  sense  of  the  word,  as  understood  and 
partly  re-created  by  Professor  Eamsay,  I  have 
made  no  reference.  This  of  course  implies  no 
want  of  interest  on  my  part,  but  only  that  the 
present  work  has  its  necessary  limitations.  I 
am  well  aware  that  a  thorough  re-examination 
of  the  critical  views  of  all  the  various  schools 
is  urgently  needed,  and  that  both  archaeology 
such  as  Professor  Ramsay  and  likeminded 
scholars  cultivate  and  also  the  newer  textual 
criticism  will  give  invaluable  help  to  those  who 
may  be  brave  enough  to  undertake  it. 


PART   IV 

I  NOW  turn  to  the  Old  Testament,  first 
expressing  the  hope  that  I  may  not  thereby 
contribute  to  the  propping  up  of  the  ancient 
error  that  the  New  Testament  is  the  direct 
continuation  of  the  Old.  Students  should 
now  at  length  be  beginning  to  realize  that  the 
most  various  influences  contributed  to  form 
the  intellectual  and  spiritual  milieu  in  which 
alone  the  Gospel  could  have  arisen,  and  any 
new  fact  which  enables  us  to  understand  this 
milieu  better  is  a  fact  of  high  importance  for 
Bible-study.  Such  a  work  as  Bousset's  on 
Jewish  Religion  in  the  Age  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment (Berlin,  1903)  is  full  of  new  facts  of  this 
kind,  and  each  new  publication  of  Dr  R.  H. 
Charles  is   almost  an    event  in   Bible-study, 

139 


140  Bible  Problems 

through  the  abundance  of  its  new  contribu- 
tions to  the  study  of  Judaism.  Into  these 
facts  I  cannot  here  enter,  though  ghmpses  of 
some  of  them  have  naturally  been  given  in 
speaking  of  one  section  of  the  Book  of  Revela- 
tion. Nor  can  I  even  consider  the  bearings 
of  the  discovery  of  fragments  of  the  Hebrew 
Ecclesiasticus/  which  ought  to  become  fruit- 
ful both  for  the  comprehension  of  Ben  Sira's 
work,  and  for  textual  criticism  generally.  The 
new  facts  of  which  I  shall  speak  here  are 
primarily  facts  of  archaeology,  including  especi- 
ally Assyriology. 

Some  students  may  remark,  ''  So  the  Old 
Testament  critics  are  being  converted  to  a 
belief  in  Assyriological  research."  I  am  afraid 
there  is  a  popular  misunderstanding  on  this 
point,  for  which  an  old  and  much-valued  friend 
of  my  own — Professor  Sayce — is  unfortunately 
responsible.  Again  and  again  this  eager 
scholar  speaks  in  widely  circulated  books  and 
booklets  as  if  the  higher  critics  were  neglectful 

1  See  Note  xii.^  p.  254. 


old  Testament  141 

of  Assyriology.  The  critics  have  protested, 
but  the  accusations  continue  to  pour  on  them 
with  but  Uttle  mitigation.  But  surely  Pro- 
fessor Sayce  has  fallen  into  an  error.  Can  it 
be  that  he  is  thinking  of  a  single  critic,  who 
bulks  so  largely  in  his  mind  that  he  involun- 
tarily speaks  of  him  as  a  multitude  ? — I  mean 
Wellhausen,  who,  in  his  zeal  for  Arabic,  is 
still  perhaps  tempted  to  keep  Assyrian  at 
arm's  length,  and  certainly  has  not  found  time 
to  come  to  terms  with  his  Assyriological 
opponents. 

Surely,  too.  Professor  Sayce  greatly  exagger- 
ates when  he  gives  us  to  understand  that  As- 
sjn-iological  researches  have  subverted,  or  are 
subverting,  the  whole  fabric  of  the  higher  criti- 
cism. Perhaps  his  language  is  not  intended 
to  be  taken  quite  literally,  but  it  justly 
surprises  many  who  are  aware  that  important 
parts  of  the  material  of  that  fabric  are  built 
into  the  structure  of  his  own  theory  of  the 
Old  Testament.  Here  again,  like  the  German 
critic  who  stands  nearest  to  him,  Fritz  Hommel, 


142  Bible  Problems 

he  is  too  much  under  the  fascination  of  a  single 
eminent  name  —  that  of  Wellhausen.  For 
clearly,  by  the  phrase  "higher  critics"  he 
really  means  the  same  thing  that  Hommel 
means  by  the  appalling  word  "  Wellhaus- 
enian."^  But  it  should  be  noticed  that  while 
"higher  critics"  in  general  do  agree  with 
Kuenen  and  Wellhausen  in  their  general 
arrangement  of  the  component  parts  of  the 
Old  Testament,  yet  they  are  willing  and 
almost  eager  to  modify  many  of  the  details, 
and  in  particular  to  admit  the  existence  of 
early  elements  in  works  which,  as  they  stand, 
must  be  called  late. 

Still,  I  have  no  wish  to  deny  that  the  so- 
called  "higher  critics"  in  the  past  were  as 
a  rule  unduly  suspicious  of  Assyriology  as  a 
young  and  (as  they  thought)  too  self-assertive 
science,  and  that  many  of  those  who  now 
recognize  its  contributions  to  knowledge  are 

^  For  Hommel' s  own  critical  views  on  the  Pentateuch 
see  his  pamphlet,  Die  altorientalischen  Denkmaler  und  das 
Alte  Testament  (Berlin,  1903),  pp.  13-17. 


Old  Testament  143 

somewhat  too  mechanical  in  the  use  of  it,  and 
too  sceptical  as  to  the  influence  of  Babylonian 
culture  in  relatively  early  times  on  Syria, 
Palestine,  and  even  Arabia.  And  therefore 
for  the  exhortation  to  "consider  their  ways 
and  be  wise,"  and  to  expand  their  aims  and 
methods,  I  will  admit  that  thanks  are  due  to 
Professors  Sayce  and  Hommel,  and  still  more 
to  a  very  different  scholar — Professor  Hugo 
Winckler,  whose  deficient  interest  in  religion 
and  excessive  self-reliance  must  not  deter  us 
from  learning  from  a  critic  who  has  so  keen  an 
eye  for  new  problems  whensoever  we  can.^ 

For  my  own  part,  I  maintain  strongly  that 
the  criticism,  philology,  and  archaeology  of  the 
Old  Testament  are  already  much  indebted  to 

^  Winckler 's  short  work,  Abraham  als  Bahylonier^  Joseph 
als  Aegypter  (Berlin,  1903),  presents  some  of  his  views  in 
the  form  least  likely  to  give  offence  to  conservative  readers. 
But  for  a  conspectus  of  all  his  results  we  must  turn  to  the 
first  half  of  the  third  edition  of  Schrader's  Die  Keil- 
inschriflen  und  das  A  lie  Testament  (1902).  On  this  great 
work,  the  second  part  of  which  is  by  H.  Zimmern,  see  my 
article,  '^  Babylon  and  the  Bible,"  Hibbert  Journal,  Oct. 
1903,  pp.  65/: 


144  Bible  Problems 

Assyriology.  The  student  must,  however,  be 
on  his  guard  against  the  "falsehood  of  ex- 
tremes." We  do  most  urgently  want  a  new 
guide  ^  and  a  much  revised  criticism,  but  before 
we  can  follow  Winckler  without  reserve  on 
the  paths  on  which  he  would  conduct  us,  we 
must,  I  think,  be  more  convinced  that  he  sees 
his  way  clearly  enough  in  textual  criticism. 
Although  he  is  at  home  in  the  Hebrew  Bible 
as  well  as  in  the  inscriptions,  it  cannot  be  said 
that  he  applies  the  same  critical  standard  to 
the  received  text  consistently,  nor  indeed  does 
he  appear  to  have  had  an  adequate  preliminary 
experience.  In  some  parts  of  his  Old  Testa- 
ment work  he  is  much  too  unsuspicious ;  in 
others  (take  for  instance  his  treatment  of  Judg. 
V.  and  Ps.  xxii.),  not  perhaps  too  suspicious, 
but  too  unmethodical  in  his  criticism.  In 
other  departments,  too,  he  is  sometimes,  as  it 
seems  to  me,  not  strict  enough  in  his  criticism, 
and  then  again  sometimes  really  hypercritical, 

1  On  new  guides  see  article,  "  Babylon  and  the  Bible," 
referred  to  in  preceding  note. 


old  Testament  145 

especially  in  his  application  of  the  mythological 
key  and  in  his  theory  (so  suggestive  in  its 
details)  of  the  later  history  of  Israel.  In  his 
treatment  of  religion,  moreover,  as  I  have 
already  remarked,  he  is  far  from  satisfactory, 
owing  to  his  unfortunate  lack  of  religious 
sympathy.  With  all  his  earnestness  and 
acuteness,  he  has  not  succeeded  in  making 
it  probable  that  prophecy,  even  in  its  political 
aspect,  can  be  explained  from  Babylonia.^ 
And  neither  he  nor  anyone  else  has  been  able 
to  show  that  the  course  of  the  development 
of  the  idea  of  Yahw^  (miswritten,  since  the 
Reformation  period,  Jehovah)  can  be  alto- 
gether paralleled  in  Babylonia.  That  Baby- 
lonian and  perhaps  Arabian  influences  affected 
that  development  at  certain  points,  need  not 
be  denied.  But  the  predominant  character 
of  the  religion  of  Israel  refuses  to  be  accounted 
for  by  the  "  pan-Babylonian  "  theory. 

Having  said   what   was    necessary  of    the 

^  See  Note  xiii.,  p.  255,  and  cp.  the  article  mentioned 
already. 

10 


146  Bible  Problems 

limitations    of    Professor    Winckler     (whose 
enemy  I    cannot   be,   for  I   have   more  than 
once  come  forward  in  his  defence,  and  whom 
with  a  recent  German  writer  I  regard  as  the 
most   stimulative   scholar    at  work   on   these 
matters),   I  now  take   up  a  new  division   of 
my  subject.     My  aim  is  to  give  a  conspectus 
of  some  of  the  new  facts,  important  for  Old 
Testament  study,  for  which  we  are  indebted 
to  Assyriology,  to  Egyptology,  and  to  what 
in  a  slightly  narrow  sense  is  commonly  known 
among  us  as  archaeology.     If  these   facts   do 
not   subvert   the    fabric    of    the   new   critical 
tradition,  they  at  any  rate  compel  lovers  of 
truth  to  revise,  correct,  and  expand  it.     This 
may   be  a   new   point   of  view  for   some   of 
my    hearers,   but    must    I    not    claim    some 
respect   for  it  on   the  part  of  Uberal-minded 
Churchmen  ? 

(1)  The  first  specimen  -  fact  that  I  shall 
mention  is  a  complex  one ;  it  relates,  or  is 
thought  to  relate,  to  a  group  of  names  in  the 
fourteenth  chapter  of  Genesis.     In  all  recent 


Old  Testament  147 

works  on  this  difficult  book  you  will  find  it 
noticed  that  several  kings  of  Elam  bore 
names  beginning  with  Kudur,  and  that  an 
Elamite  goddess  bore  the  name  Lagamar, 
from  which  it  is  inferred  that  Chedorlaomer 
is  a  genuine  historical  name.  Further,  that  a 
very  ancient  king  of  Larsa,  the  Babylonian 
city  of  the  sun-god,  was  called  Rim-sin,  or, 
in  the  Sumerian  language,  Eri-aku,  which 
is  thought  to  be  the  same  as  Arioch ;  for 
some  reason  or  other — it  is  supposed — the 
ancient  Hebrew  writer  used  by  preference 
the  less  natural  name  Eri-aku,  which  has 
become  Arioch.  Next,  it  is  noticed,  quite 
correctly,  as  a  brilliant  discovery,  that  a  king 
of  Babylon,  who  was,  both  as  a  conqueror 
and  as  a  ruler,  one  of  the  greatest  kings  of 
the  East,  was  called  Hammurabi ;  he  lived 
in  the  third  millennium  b.c.^  The  question 
then  arises.  Does  this  name  occur  in  a 
recognizable    form    in    Genesis    xiv.  ?       The 

1  See   The  Letters  and  Inscriptions  of  Hammurabi.     By 
L.  W.  King.     Three  volumes,  1898-1900. 


148  Bible  Problems 

orthodox  theory  among  both  Assyriologists 
and  Hebraists  is  that  the  great  king's  name 
appears  in  v.  1  as  Amraphel.^ 

This  requires  us  indeed  to  suppose  that 
"  Shinar,"  for  some  unknown  reason,  was 
preferred  to  the  more  natural  "  Babel "  {i,e, 
Babylon) ;  but  we  know  that  the  Septuagint 
sometimes  (see  Isa.  xi.  11,  Zech.  v.  11), 
though  unfortunately  not  in  Gen.  xiv.  1, 
equates  "  Shinar "  and  "  Babylonia."  Add 
to  this  that  "  EUasar "  is  not  very  unlike 
"  Larsa,"  that  Elam  (Assyrian,  filama, 
£ilamtu)  is  the  Assyrian  name  of  a  country 
east  of  Babylonia,  and  that  the  Elamites 
were  a  conquering  race,  and  appear  at  the 
right  time  for  this  theory  to  have  claimed 
suzerainty  over  Syria  and  Palestine.  Such 
are  the  considerations  now  being  urged  by 
not  a  few  archaeological  critics  of  Genesis. 

I  should  very  much  like,  however,  to  call  in 
a  candid  liberal  critic,  uncommitted  to  theories, 
and  ask  him  what  he  says  to  all  this.  Cer- 
^  See  Note  xiv.,  p.  260. 


old  Testament  149 

tainly  he  would  be  surprised  to  learn  that 
the  Hebrew  writer  not  only  believed  in  the 
existence  of  Abraham,  but  was  even  able  to 
determine  approximately  his  date.  And  he 
would  not,  I  think,  be  free  from  the  fear  that 
this  may  be  too  good  to  be  true.  To  this 
perhaps  an  equally  candid  conservative  would 
be  ready  with  a  reply.  Cuneiform  tablets 
have  been  lately  found  at  Lachish,  Gezer,  and 
Taanach.  The  oldest  monument  of  alphabetic 
writing  in  Palestine  (the  stone  of  king  Mesha) 
is  not  older  than  the  ninth  century  B.C.,  and 
Professor  Winckler  even  supposes  ^  that  cunei- 
form continued  to  be  used  for  official  purposes 
after  that  time.  Granted  that  the  scribe 
"  made  a  muddle  "  ^  of  the  names  ;  what  more 
natural,  if  he  was  a  bad  scholar  ?  On  the 
other  hand,  the  uncommitted  liberal  critic 
would  certainly  hold  that,  taking  Gen.  xiv.  as 
a  whole,  it  cannot  possibly  be  in  its  original 
form,  and  would   ask  whether  we   can  base 

1  Altorientalische  Forschungen,  3rd  series,  i.  165-174. 

2  Johns,  Expositor,  Oct.  1903,  p.  286. 


150  Bible  Problems 

arguments,  as  the  commentators  do,  on  the 
present  forms  of  the  names  ?  Professor  Driver 
indeed,  the  latest  commentator,  does  not 
suggest  serious  textual  corruption.  He  recog- 
nizes, however,  the  chief  historical  difficulties, 
and  the  occasion  did  not  perhaps  seem  to 
demand  that  he  should  probe  the  text. 
Winckler  at  any  rate  admits  that  the  narrative 
has  passed  through  several  phases.^  Gunkel, 
too,  in  a  general  way,  admits  this,  but  thinks 
the  internal  difficulties  cannot  be  adequately 
explained  by  supposing  the  chapter  to  be  of 
composite  origin.^  This  is  certainly  true,  and 
indicates  that  the  "  muddling "  work  of  the 
scribes  needs  to  be  more  searchingly  criticized. 
The  sum  of  the  matter  is  that  the  "  new  fact," 
if  used  as  a  key  to  the  existing  text,  settles 
nothing,  but  both  justifies  and  requires  a  much 
more  searching  and  complete  criticism  of  the 
text  and  of  its  contents. 

(2)  Our  second  new  fact  is  the  connexion 

1  Geschichte  Israels ^  ii.  32  ff\ 

2  Genesis  (in  the  Handkommentar),  1st  ed.,  p.  2.65. 


old  Testament  151 

of  the  S.  Babylonian  city  of  Uru  and  the 
Mesopotamian  city  of  Harran  with  the  worship 
of  the  Babylonian  moon-god  Sin.  We  are 
told  in  Gen.  xi.  31  that  Terah  and  Abram 
spent  some  time,  first  in  Ur-kasdim  (Ur  of  the 
Chaldees  ?),  and  then  in  Haran.  If  Ur-kasdim 
is  Uru,  and  Haran  is  Harran,  and  if  the 
historical  existence  of  Abram  has  previously 
been  ascertained,  we  have  a  right  to  ask, 
What  is  the  inner  meaning  of  this  specially 
reported  fact — the  residence  of  Abram  and 
his  family  first  in  one  city  of  the  moon-god 
and  then  in  another,  before  their  migration 
to  Canaan  ?  Had  Terah  and  Abram  some 
degree  of  religious  sympathy  with  the  worship 
of  Sin,  the  moon-god,  just  as  Joseph  may 
conceivably  (if  chronology  and  other  details 
favour  this  view)  have  sympathized  with  the 
worship  of  the  solar  disk  which  was  made  the 
state -religion  of  Egypt  by  Amen-hotep  IV. 
(Chuen-aten)  ?  And  did  they  leave  the  sphere 
of  direct  Babylonian  religious  influence  because 
Hammurabi  had   signalized  his  unification  of 


152  Bible  Problems 

Babylonia  by  making  Marduk  (Merodach)  the 
chief  Babylonian  deity  instead  of  Sin  ?  These 
are  mere  conjectures,  but  they  are  at  least 
critical  conjectures/  It  is  true  that,  accord- 
ing to  the  usual  critical  view,  the  Priestly 
Writer  (P),  who  represents  Abram's  residence 
in  Haran  as  consequent  on  a  migration  from 
Ur,  harmonizes  two  distinct  traditions.  But 
at  any  rate  the  fact  remains  that  tradition 
connects  Abram  with  two  moon-cities.  We 
cannot,  however,  leave  the  matter  thus. 
There  are  reasons  for  doubting  the  identifica- 
tion of  Ur-kasdim  with  the  S.  Babylonian 
city  Uru.  Plausible  as  Professor  Winckler's 
theory  may  be,  it  has  only  this  justification, — 
that  it  accounts,  or  seems  to  account,  for 
Abram's  residence  in  a  moon-city,  or  in  two 
moon-cities.  But  what  if  the  original  tradition 
did  not  identify  the  starting-point  of  Abram's 
migration  with  the  moon-city  Uru  ?  Of 
course,  it  is  always  possible  to  hope  that  the 

^  See  Winckler,  Abraham   als  Bahylonier,  etc.  (already 
referred  to)  ;  but  cp.  Enc.  Bihlica,  '^Abraham,"  §  4^  iii. 


old  Testament  153 

spade  of  the  excavator  may  bring  something 
to  Hght  which  will  prove,  or  at  least  support, 
some  cherished  theory.  But  as  yet  no  proof 
at  all  has  been  offered  for  the  assumption  that 
Ur-kasdim  is  represented  by  the  ruins  of 
el-Muk:ayyar,  six  miles  south  of  the  Euphrates. 
Those  ruins  do  undoubtedly  represent  the 
ancient  Uru,  but  between  Ur-kasdim  and  Uru 
a  great  gulf  is  fixed,  for  Uru  was  never  called 
Uru  of  the  Chaldeans,  Consequently  all  that 
our  second  new  fact  (see  above)  proves  for 
the  Old  Testament  student  is  that  we  require 
a  much  more  searching  criticism  of  the  narra- 
tives relative  to  Ur-kasdim  than  has  yet  been 
given.^ 

(3)  Our  third  fact  is  the  discovery  (made 
in  Dec.  1901-Jan.  1902,  by  M.  J.  de  Morgan, 
on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Susa)  of  the  code  of 
Hammurabi, — that  is,  of  the  very  king  who, 
as  recent  writers  infer  from  Gen.  xiv.  1,  was 

^  See  Enc.  Bihlica^  "  Ur  of  the  Chaldees/'  §  5,  and  note 
that  Jensen  the  Assyriologist  has  also  of  late  shown  him- 
self inclined  to  separate  Ur-kasdim  from  the  moon-city 
Uru  {K.A.T.,  3rd  ed.,  p.  365,  note  1). 


154  Bible  Problems 

a  vassal  of  the  great  king  of  Elam,  but  who 
afterwards  threw  off  the  supremacy  of  Elam, 
and  himself  became  over-lord  of  Syria  and 
Palestine.  May  we  venture  to  assume  that, 
not  only  the  Babylonian  language  and  script 
obtained  currency  among  the  official  class  of 
Palestine,  but  also,  if  not  the  code  of  Ham- 
murabi himself,  at  any  rate  legal  rules  which 
were  analogous  to,  or  a  reflexion  of,  those 
contained  in  that  code?  Do  we  find  that 
the  so-called  patriarchal  narratives  of  Genesis 
presuppose  legal  usages  in  accordance  with 
the   code   of    Hammurabi?^      Is    there    any 


^  This  question  is  answered  in  the  affirmative  by  J. 
Jeremias,  Moses  und  Hammurabi  (1903),  and  D.  H.  Miiller, 
Die  Gesetze  Hammurabi  s  (1903).  See,  however,  G.  Wilde- 
boer,  De  Patriarchen  des  Ouden  Verbonds  en  de  Wetgebing 
van  Hatnmoerabi  (1904),  and  cp.  Kohler  and  Peiser,  Ham- 
murabi's Gesetze,  i.  (1904),  p.  143.  C.  H.  W.  Johns' 
article  in  Hastings,  Bible  Dictionary  (extra  volume),  I  have 
not  yet  seen  (July  31,  1904).  S.  A.  Cook's  The  Laws  of 
Moses  and  the  Code  of  Hammurabi  (1903)  is  a  judicious, 
comprehensive  introduction  to  the  whole  subject,  and 
shows  a  full  knowledge  of  its  recent  literature.  Dr  W.  R. 
Harper's  expected  volume  has  not  yet  appeared  (July 
1904). 


old  Testament  155 

contrast  in  this  respect  between  those  narra- 
tives and  the  earUest  extant  Israelitish  law- 
book (the  Book  of  the  Covenant)  ?  These 
problems  directly  concern  the  student  of  the 
history  of  Israel,  and  their  study  should  help 
to  bring  about  a  more  thorough  and  penetrat- 
ing study  of  the  Pentateuch.  It  is  possible 
enough  that  in  considering  them  fresh  pro- 
blems may  arise  which  may  greatly  surprise 
us ;  but  if  our  object  is  truth,  we  cannot  be 
otherwise  than  pleased  at  this  result. 

(4)  Our  fourth  fact  is  the  occurrence  of  the 
name  Yau  as  a  component  part  of  several 
names  of  Syrian  kings  in  the  regal  period  of 
Israelitish  history,  and  of  Yaum,  and  perhaps 
also  of  Yave,  as  elements  of  personal  names 
in  Babylonian  contract-tablets  of  the  age  of 
Hammurabi.  May  we,  with  Professor  Fried- 
rich  Delitzsch,  infer  from  this  that  the  Syrian 
kings  referred  to,  and  certain  Semitic  immi- 
grants in  primitive  Babylonia,  were  wor- 
shippers of  the  god  Yahwe,  who,  according 
to   IsraeUtish  tradition,   revealed    himself   to 


156  Bible  Problems 

Moses  on  Mount  Sinai  ?  Or,  as  I  should 
prefer  to  put  it,  was  the  reUgion  of  the 
prophets  a  spiritualization  of  the  worship  of 
no  relatively  small  deity,  such  as  the  god 
of  a  tribe  of  Kenites,  but  of  one  who  was 
widely  known  and  worshipped  among  Semitic 
peoples  ?  ^  This  is  a  far  more  interesting 
question  than  any  which  can  arise  respecting 
the  origin  of  the  Yahwe-cultus  simply  out 
of  the  Old  Testament.  And  yet  without 
a  searching  criticism  of  the  Old  Testament 
it  cannot,  as  I  think,  be  at  all  adequately 
answered. 

(5,  6)  Our  fifth  and  sixth  facts  are  the 
discovery,  most  probably,  of  the  name  'Ibri 
(Hebrews),  and  certainly  of  the  name  Israel, 
the  one  in  the  letters  from  Palestine  found  at 
Tel  el-Amarna  in  Egypt  in  1887,  and  dating 
from  the  fifteenth  century  B.C.,  the  other  in 
the  triumphal  stele  of  the  Egyptian  king 
Merenptah  (about  1250  B.C.),  found  by  Pro- 

1  Cp.  Johns,  Expository  Oct.  1903,  "The  Name  Jehovah 
in  the  Abrahamic  Age.'^ 


old  Testament  157 

fessor  Flinders  Petrie  at  the  Egyptian  Thebes 
in  1896.  With  regard  to  the  former,  scholars 
are  no  longer  inclined  to  identify  the  Habiri 
(the  form  under  which  *Ibri  is  probably  dis- 
guised) with  the  Israelites  whom  we  know, 
because  they  fear  that  it  would  involve 
making  the  conquest  of  Canaan  begin  as 
early  as  the  fifteenth  century  b.c.  The 
name  Habiri  is  now  generally  thought  to  be 
a  comprehensive  one/  and  to  include  in  its 
reference  all  those  nomad  tribes  which  suc- 
cessively invaded  Palestine.  Among  these 
were  the  Israelites  of  the  Book  of  Joshua, 
but  also,  at  an  earlier  time,  the  "people  of 
Israel"  whom  Merenptah,  in  his  triumphal 
inscription,  claims  to  have  destroyed.^  That 
this  "  Israel "  has  a  very  limited  reference, 
is  clear.  From  the  names  with  which  it  is 
associated,  its  abode  would  seem  to  have 
been  in  the  S.  or  S.W.,  if  not  (the  present 

1  Winckler,   Gesch.    Israels^    i.    18   jff: ;   Altoriental.    For- 
schungen,  3rd  series,  i.  90-94. 

2  This  has  been  pointed  out  by  Spiegelberg,  Der  Aufent- 
halt  Israels  in  Aegypten  (1904),  p.  33. 


158  Bible  Problems 

speaker  would  add)  in  the  N.  Arabian  border- 
land of  Palestine.^ 

Let  me  quote  a  part  of  the  inscription  from 
Spiegelberg's  translation,  which  may  provision- 
ally be  accepted  : —  ^ 

Seized  is  the  Kanaan  ^  with  every  evil. 
Led  away  is  Askelon^ 
Taken  is  Gezer/ 
Yenoam  ^  is  brought  to  nought, 

The  people  of  Israel  is  laid  waste, — their  crops  are  not^ 
Khor  ^  has  become  as  a  widow  for  Egypt, 
All  lands  together  in  peace. 
Everyone  who  roamed  about 

Is  punished  by  king  Merenptah,  gifted  with  life,  like  the 
sun  every  day. 

From  this  passage,  and  from  another  new  text 

1  Cp.  Paton,  Syria  and  Palestine  (1902),  p.  134  (^^the 
region  between  Egypt  and  Canaan  "). 

2  Inserted  in  Six  Temples  of  Thehes  (1897),  by  Flinders 
Petrie,  p.  28. 

3  Pa-kanana  was  the  name  of  a  fortress  at  the  extreme 
south  of  Palestine. 

*  Perhaps  a  Gezer  in  the  N.  Arabian  border-land. 
Seep.  159. 

^  Yenoam  (Yenu'amu)  may_,  as  Clermont  Ganneau  thinks, 
be  the  Na'amah  of  Josh.  xv.  41.  It  is  enough,  however, 
to  know  that  "Naam"  was  a  southern  clan-name  (cp. 
1  Chr.  iv.  1 5,  Naam,  a  son  of  Caleb). 

^  Rather  Haru  (S.W.  Palestine),  connected  with  Ash- 
hur  (p.  264). 


old  Testament  159 

which  speaks  of  king  Merenptah  as  "  forcing 
down  Gezer,"  it  seems  as  if  S.  Palestine,  and 
perhaps  some  part  of  the  border-land,  were 
in  rebellion  against  the  Eygptian  dominion.^ 
All  this,  of  course,  renders  it  necessary  to 
modify  the  traditional  criticism  considerably,  or 
at  any  rate  opens  the  door  for  new  probabilities. 
(7)  Our  seventh  fact  is  the  mass  of  dis- 
coveries made  by  Mr  Macalister  at  Gezer — 
not,  I  incline  to  think,  the  Gezer  of  Merenptah's 
stele,  just  referred  to  (see  p.  158,  Note  iv.).  It 
is  the  place  still  known  as  Tell  Jezer,  a  little  to 
the  S.  of  Ramleh,  where  M.  Clermont  Ganneau 
found  an  inscription  with  the  Hebrew  word 
"Gezer."  In  particular,  the  imposing  mega- 
lithic  structure,  which  seems  to  be  a  bamah  or 
"  high  place,"  is  a  fascinating  discovery.  The 
scarabs  which  have  been  found  in  abundance 
both  in  earlier  and  in  later  strata  indicate 
a  long-continued  Egyptian  influence.  This 
indeed  is  only  what  we  might  expect ;  it 
accords  entirely  with  our  previous  knowledge 

1  See  Enc.  Biblica,  "  Egypt,"  §  60,  note  3  (W.  M.  Muller). 


i6o  Bible  Problems 

of  facts.  But  when  Mr  Macalister  maintains  ^ 
that  these  Egyptian  objects  confirm  the  state- 
ment of  the  received  Hebrew  text  of  1  Kings 
ix.  16  that  "  Pharaoh  king  of  Egypt  went  up, 
and  took  Gezer,  and  burned  it,  and  gave  it  to 
his  daughter,  Solomon's  wife,"  he  treads  upon 
insecure  ground.  That  the  place  referred  to 
in  Kings  is  Mr  Macalister's  Gezer,  and  that 
Solomon's  father-in-law  was  king  of  Egypt, 
are  both  statements  which  seem  to  be  highly 
disputable.  Indeed,  Mr  Macalister's  own 
scarabs  testify  against  him.  For  why  should 
the  Pharaoh  have  made  a  raid  upon  the 
territory  where  (as  we  are  assured)  Egyptian 
influence  had  for  a  long  time  been  dominant  ? 
I  need  not  say  that  this  is  not  meant  in  any 
way  as  a  disparagement  of  this  explorer. 

(8)  All  these  seven  facts  both  invite  and 
require  further  discussion.  It  would  be  easy 
to  add  to  their  number,  but  I  shall  only  add 
one  more  of  the  first  importance.     It  is  the 

^  Palestine  Exploration  Fund  Quarterly  Statement,  Jan. 
1903,  p.   11. 


old  Testament  i6i 

existence  of  passages  in  the  Assyrian  inscrip- 
tions in  which  reference  is  made  to  N.  Arabian 
regions  near  the  southern  border  of  Palestine, 
called  respectively  Musri  and  Kus.^  This 
opens  up  a  new  line  of  inquiry,  viz.  as  to 
whether  some  or  even  many  of  the  passages  in 
the  Old  Testament  which  have  been  supposed 
to  refer  to  Misraim  (Egypt)  and  the  African 
Kush  (Ethiopia),  do  not  really  refer  to  Musri 


1  See  especially  "  North  Arabia  and  the  Bible "  (a  de- 
fence called  forth  by  some  controversial  pages  in  Dr 
Budge's  History  of  Egypt),  by  Hugo  Winckler,  Hihhert 
Journal,  April  1904;  and  cp.  Cheyne,  "Pressing  Needs 
of  the  Old  Testament  Study/'  in  the  same  Journal,  July 
1903;  and  "Babylon  and  the  Bible,"  Oct.  1903;  also 
Cheyne,  Enc.  Biblica,  "Mizraim,"  and  Critica  Biblica 
(1903-1 904).  I  am  under  great  obligations  to  Winckler, 
but  have  not  found  it  necessary  to  commit  myself  to  the 
guidance  of  Hommel,  from  whose  Ancient  Hebrew  Tradition 
I  only  gathered  the  fact  of  Hommel' s  substantial  agree- 
ment with  Winckler  as  to  Musri.  Hommel's  later  Biblical 
investigations  ("  Vier  neue  Arabische  Landschaftsnamen," 
in  his  Aufs'dtze  und  Abhandlungen,  vol.  ii.,  1900)  crossed 
my  own.  The  views  of  both  scholars  were  controverted 
by  Konig  (Fiinf  neue  Arabische  Landschaftsnamen  im  A.T., 
1902).  For  Winckler's  views  see  also  his  Musri,  Meluhha, 
Main  in  Mitteilungen  der  Vorderasiat.  Gesellschaft  (1898), 
and  Geschichte  Israels,  vol.  ii.  (1900). 

11 


1 62  Bible  Problems 

and  Kus.  To  me  it  appears  that  Winekler,  to 
whom  the  explanation  of  these  passages  is  due, 
has  made  a  discovery  of  the  utmost  value  for 
criticism.  British  scholars  have  as  yet,  I  am 
sorry  to  say,  been  somewhat  shy  of  accepting 
or  even  investigating  this,  nor  have  even 
German  critics  shown  themselves  half  as 
willing  to  examine  into  things  as  one  could 
have  wished.  Never  surely  was  caution  more 
misapplied,  and  never  were  the  evil  conse- 
quences of  deficiency  of  resource  and  undue 
suspicion  of  Assyriology  more  apparent.  I  do 
not  hesitate  to  say  that  Winekler 's  discovery 
and  his  attempt  to  utilize  it  for  the  Old 
Testament  imposes  a  special  duty  on  the 
commentator — the  pleasing  duty  of  expressing 
gratitude  to  him  for  a  flood  of  light  on  many 
Old  Testament  passages. 

The  limits  of  these  regions  do  not  concern 
us  to-day,  nor  would  it  as  yet  be  possible  from 
the  evidence  at  our  command  to  state  them 
precisely.  According  to  one  authority  the 
ethnic  name  for  the  people  of  Musri,  at  any 


old  Testament  163 

rate  in  the  time  of  Esar-haddon  and  later, 
was  Midian ;  ^  the  region  itself,  it  is  said, 
adjoined  the  land  of  the  king  of  Meluhha  on 
the  south,  and  on  the  north  extended  to  the 
border  of  South  Palestine.^  This  seems  to 
me,  having  regard  to  the  Old  Testament 
evidence,  to  need  modification ;  but  the  main 
point  for  the  student  is  to  assimilate  the  fact 
that  in  the  N.  Arabian  border-land  were 
regions  called  Musri  and  Kush,  and  in  reading 
the  Old  Testament  to  bear  this  fact  in  mind. 
The  territories  referred  to  were,  it  appears, 
under  vassal-kings,  who  paid  homage  to  a  far 
more  powerful  monarch  much  more  distant 
from  Palestine.  One  caution  must  here  be 
given.  It  would  be  a  fatal  mistake  to  picture 
to  ourselves  the  region  called  Musri  or,  in 
Hebrew,  Missor  or  Misrim,  as  under  the 
same  physical  conditions  in  primitive  times 
which  the    same    region    (probably)   displays 

1  Winckler  {K.A.T.,  3rd  ed.,  p.  143).  Hommel  makes 
Mosar  (Musri)  and  Midian  synonymous  {Vier  neue  Landsck,- 
namen,  p.  277). 

2  /M.,  pp.  141  J/: 


164  Bible  Problems 

to-day.  We  can  hardly  venture  to  doubt 
that  it  was,  on  the  whole,  more  fertile  and 
productive,  and  that  its  civilization  gave  a 
very  tolerable  reflexion  of  the  advanced  culture 
both  of  the  flourishing  states  of  S.  Arabia 
and  (partly  through  S.  Arabia,  partly  perhaps 
through  regions  nearer  to  the  Euphrates) 
of  Babylonia.  I  trust  no  one  will  be  so  unfair 
as  to  blame  me  for  the  inevitable  lacunas  in 
my  information.  The  Hebrew  texts  compel 
us  to  assume  much  that  is  only  imperfectly 
confirmed  from  other  sources.  But  as  soon 
as  the  S.  Arabian  inscriptions,  collected  by 
Glaser,  have  been  thoroughly  examined,  we 
may  reasonably  hope  that  much  fresh  light 
will  be  shed  on  ancient  Arabian  culture,  and 
that  this  will  promote  the  better  compre- 
hension of  the  Old  Testament. 

Some  knowledge  of  the  names  of  the  regions 
of  the  S.  border-land,  and  of  their  former 
close  connexion  with  Israel,  seems  to  have 
been  possessed  by  scribes  and  editors  at  a 
comparatively  late  period,  but  afterwards,  as 


old  Testament  165 

a  consequence  of  still  further  changes  and 
catastrophes,  such  knowledge  evidently  dis- 
appeared. Partly  through  corruption,  partly 
through  editorial  manipulation,  the  archaic 
N.  Arabian  names  became  transformed  into 
names  belonging  to  a  different  geographical 
area,  or,  as  in  some  cases,  were  wrongly 
vocalized,  or  at  any  rate  placed  in  vicinity 
to  names  which  had  become  transformed,  so 
that  a  correct  view  of  the  original  sense  was 
precluded.  And  yet  it  is  often  possible, 
sometimes  with  probability,  sometimes  with 
practical  certainty,  to  restore  the  original 
names,  if  we  will  but  give  up  that  prejudice 
in  favour  of  the  uncriticized  or  superficially 
criticized  Massoretic  text,  and  of  the  un- 
criticized or  but  half-criticized  Hebrew  text, 
apparently  used  by  the  Septuagint  translators, 
and  proceed  to  apply  a  methodical  criticism 
to  that  text  (or  those  texts).  I  am  afraid 
that,  until  this  course  shall  have  been  adopted, 
the  task  of  a  commentator  will  continue  to 
be   rather  an  unremunerative  one.     He   may 


1 66  Bible  Problems 

indeed  limit  himself  to  discovering  the  sense 
put  upon  the  ill-transmitted  Hebrew  text  by 
the  latest  editor  (a  task  not  as  yet  consciously 
attempted),  but  he  will  hardly  come  very  near 
the  sense  intended  by  the  original  writer. 
Such  at  least  is  my  own  conclusion,  after 
no  hasty  examination  of  the  subject.  In 
case,  however,  this  should  be  too  bold  for 
the  ordinary  student  or  critic,  I  will  now 
propose  a  practicable  compromise. 

Let  me  begin  by  mentioning  some  of  the 
passages  in  which  the  least  amount  of  textual 
criticism  seems  to  yield  highly  important 
results.^  In  fact,  all  that  is  required  in  these 
cases  is  to  assume  that  Misraim  (Egypt)  or  Sor 
(Tyre)  has  been  misread  for  Misrim  or  Missor 
(names  of  N.  Arabian  regions),  or  Misri  should 
be  interpreted  as  "a  man  of  Missor"  (i.e.  a 
N.  Arabian),  rather  than  "  a  man  of  Egypt," 
"  an  Egyptian."     To   these   I  will  add  some 

^  These  agree  for  the  most  part  with  Winckler's  list 
of  passages  in  Musri,  ii.,  1898  (cp.  K.A.T.,  3rd  ed.,  pp. 
144-148).  They  are  independent  of  Hommel's  results  as 
given  in  Aufs'dtze  und  Abhandlungen,  pp.  304  f. 


old  Testament  167 

passages  in  which  the  land  of  Kush 
has  been  supposed  to  be  the  well-known 
African  Kush  (or  Ethiopia),  whereas  really 
it  is  the  Arabian  Kush  adjoining  Missor  or 
Misrim,  which  the  Biblical  writer  meant.  I 
plead  with  students  for  the  general  acceptance 
of  at  least  these  results,  or  most  of  them,  as 
absolutely  necessary,  if  the  critical  study  of 
the  text  and  of  its  meaning  is  to  make  progress. 
I  have  not  attempted  to  be  exhaustive  in 
my  list  of  Misrim-passages ;  elsewhere  in  this 
volume  (see  the  Notes)  some  fresh  ones  will 
be  found.  If  anyone  is  convinced  that  I  am 
mistaken,  I  shall  be  most  grateful  to  him  for 
a  really  thorough  refutation  which  takes  in 
and  accounts  for  all  the  critical  and  exegetical 
facts  much  more  adequately. 

(a)  In  Gen.  xvi.  1  we  read  that  Abram's  wife 
Sarai  had  a  Misrite  hand-maid  w^hose  name 
was  Hagar.  The  lexicons  and  commentaries 
tell  us  that  "  Misrite  "  here  means  "  Egyptian," 
and  yet  with  singular  inconsistency  they  derive 
"  Hagar,"  not  from  any  Egyptian  word,  but 


1 68  Bible  Problems 

from  the  Arabic.  Some  of  them  too  very 
honestly  mention  that  the  ethnic  name 
"  Hagrim  "  (in  our  Bible  "  Hagarenes "  and 
"  Hagarites  ")  reminds  us  of  "  Hagar."  The 
case  is  exactly  parallel  to  that  of  1  Chr.  ii.  34, 
where  we  are  told  of  a  certain  Jerahmeelite 
that  he  had  a  Misrite  slave  called  Jarha 
(Yarha).  It  is  plain  that  Jarha  is  a  corruption 
of  Jerahmeel  (Yerahmeel),  and  yet  the  com- 
mentaries go  on  saying  that  the  slave  referred 
to  was  an  Egyptian.  So  far  as  I  can  see,  it  is 
quite  certain  that  both  Hagar  and  Jarha  were, 
according  to  the  narrators,  N.  Arabians.  Of 
course,  too,  in  Gen.  xxi.  21  the  narrator  meant 
to  say  that  Hagar  fetched  Ishmael  a  wife  "  out 
of  the  land  of  Misrim  "  (not  Misraim).  There 
is  no  evidence  whatever  that  Ishmaelites  were 
ever  regarded  as  partly  of  Egyptian  origin. 

But,  it  will  be  asked,  did  not  Abram  go 
down  into  Egypt,  and  there  receive  from  the 
Pharaoh  a  gift  of  men-servants  and  hand- 
maids ?  Is  not  this  fact  subversive  of  the 
theory  ?     This  requires  us  to  consider  {b)  Gen. 


old  Testament  169 

xii.  10-20  so  far  as  is  necessary  to  refute  the 
objection.  My  reply  is  that  there  is  nothing 
in  the  narrative  as  it  stands  which  can  with 
any  positiveness  be  called  distinctively  Egyp- 
tian colouring.  "Pharaoh"  may  have  been 
produced  out  of  Pir'u  (attested  as  a  Misrite 
name).  Between  "  may  "  and  "  must  "  there 
is  doubtless  a  difference,  but  we  have  a  right 
to  prefer  the  alternative  which  enables  us  to 
account  for  the  mention  of  camels,  which  could 
not  be  Egyptian  at  all,  unless  brought  by 
traders  from  elsewhere — a  sufficiently  violent 
supposition.  And  to  this  I  add  that  in  the  two 
parallel  versions  of  the  same  popular  story  (chap. 
XX.  and  xxvi.  6-11)  the  scene  is  certainly  laid 
in  the  S.  of  Palestine,  and  that  in  xx.  4,  6  (cp. 
1  Sam.  XXX.  15)  the  offending  king  is  a 
worshipper  of  Adonai  or  Elohim.  The  original 
writer  therefore  cannot  have  meant  to  tell  us 
that  Abram  "went  down  into  Egypt."  This 
must  suffice  to-day  on  this  interesting  subject ; 
more  perhaps  may  be  said  on  another  occasion, 
(c)  Turn,  next,  to  1  Sam.  xxx.  13.     There 


lyo  Bible  Problems 

are  few  things  more  impossible  than  the 
sentence,  "  I  am  a  young  man  of  Egypt,  slave 
of  an  Amalekite."  Observe  that  the  language 
causes  this  person  no  difficulty,  that  he  is 
well  acquainted  with  the  country,  and  is  a 
worshipper  of  Elohim  {v.  15;  cp.  Gen.  xx.  6). 
Obviously  the  young  man  was  a  Misrite  of 
N.  Arabia.  It  can  be  shown  to  be  highly 
probable  that  the  N.  Arabians  here  referred  to 
had  a  rehgion  akin  in  externals  to  the  popular 
religion  of  their  Israelitish  neighbours. 

(d)  The  story  of  Benaiah  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  20/.) 
has  puzzled  all  the  critics,  simply  because 
they  had  not  the  right  key  to  the  difficulties. 
Not  to  mention  more  than  one  of  these  diffi- 
culties, surely  the  improbability  of  the  sudden 
jump  from  Moab  to  Egypt  is  not  easily  to  be 
explained  away.  "  He  slew  the  two  (sons  of) 
Ariel  of  Moab,  .  .  .  and  he  slew  an  Egyp- 
tian, a  goodly  man,"  as  the  Revised  Version 
gives  it,  is  a  most  improbable  sentence — more 
so  even  than  that  just  mentioned  in  1  Sam.  xxx. 
13.     If  the  first  part  is  corrupt  (which  few,  I 


Old  Testament  171 

think,  will  deny),  surely  we  may  well  suspect 
something  wrong  in  the  second.  Apart  from 
prejudice,  must  it  not  be  plain  that  "a 
Misrite  "  here  means,  not  "  an  Egjrptian,"  but 
"a  N.  Arabian,"  and  this  could  easily  be 
proved,  if  I  had  time  to  refer  to  parallels  else- 
where for  the  absolutely  certain  correction  of 
"  a  goodly  man,"  or  rather  "  a  man  of  counten- 
ance, or  sight "  (Authorized  Version,  margin). 
Do  you  ask  what  this  necessary  correction  is  ? 
It  is  "ish  jerahmeel"  instead  of  "ish  mar'eh." 
Thus  we  get,  "  And  he  slew  a  Misrite,  a  man 
of  Jerahmeel."^ 

{e)  That  Solomon  married  the  daughter  of 
an  Egyptian  king  (1  K.  iii.  1,  vii.  8,  ix.  16,  xi.  1), 
is  to  say  the  least  improbable.  Misrim,  not 
Misraim,  is  the  country  with  which  Solomon 
was  most  naturally  connected.^  To  this  an 
acute  and  learned  scholar  has  added  that  in 
the  Tel  el-Amarna  letters  it  is  expressly  said, 

1  See  Critica  Bihlica  on  the  passage. 

2  Cheyne,  Jewish  Quarterly  Review,  July  1899,  pp.  559  f- ; 
jBwc.  BiblicUj  "  Solomon,"  §  5a.     Konig  does  not  refute  this. 


172  Bible  Problems 

"  Never  has  a  daughter  of  the  king  of  Egypt 
been  given  as  a  wife  to  anyone"  {Le.  to  a 
foreign  prince),  and  that  in  this  ease  such  a 
matrimonial  aUiance  was  specially  improbable, 
Solomon  being  a  vassal  king/  This  view,  how- 
ever, needs  to  be  supported  by  a  keener  criticism 
of  the  early  narratives  in  Kings  than  the  able 
scholar  referred  to  has  given.^  "  Pharaoh,"  it 
should  be  added,  need  not  be  due  to  an  inter- 
polation ;  Pir  u  is  the  name  of  a  king  of 
Musri  in  the  time  of  S  argon,  and  a  late 
editor,  under  a  complete  misapprehension  as 
to  the  early  history,  may  have  read  the  letter 
He  instead  of  Waw. 

(f)  In  1  Kings  iv.  30  (v.  10)  the  wisdom  of 
Solomon  is  compared  (so  it  is  generally  held) 
to  "  the  wisdom  of  all  the  children  of  the  east 

1  Winckler,  Geschichte  Israels,  ii.  263,  cp.  p.  262,  and 
W.  M.  Miiller^  Asien  und  Europa,  p.  390. 

2  A  contribution  to  such  a  criticism  was  given  in  Critica 
Bihlica,  part  iv._,  which,  however  scanty  and  concise,  yet  may 
be  said  to  contain  some  of  the  most  essential  things,  which 
will  unfortunately  be  sought  for  in  vain  even  in  Prof. 
Stade's  work  on  1  and  2  Kings  in  Prof.  Paul  Haupt's 
critical  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible. 


old  Testament  173 

country  and  all  the  wisdom  of  Egypt."  Now 
it  is  true  that  Egypt  had  its  proverbial  litera- 
ture (including  e,g,  the  sayings  of  Ptah-hotep), 
but  why  should  the  narrator  go  so  far  out  of  his 
way,  when  of  all  Israel's  neighbours  Edom  had 
the  highest  reputation  for  wisdom  (cp.  Obad.  8, 
Jer.  xlix.  7,  Baruch  iii.  22/!,  and  the  Book  of 
Job),  and  when  "  it  is  precisely  from  Egypt  that 
(Israel)  appears  to  have  received  the  least  intel- 
lectual stimulus  "  ?  ^  Moreover,  v.  31,  accord- 
ing to  critical  principles,  is  an  explanatory  gloss 
on  V,  30,  and  in  v,  31  there  is  no  word  which 
can  be  tortured  into  a  resemblance  to  Misraim, 
or  to  the  name  of  any  tribe  or  population 
of  Misraim.  On  the  other  hand,  the  land  of 
Misrim  (Musri),  alike  from  its  political  im- 
portance and  its  geographical  situation,  may 
without  difficulty  be  supposed  to  have  been  a 
centre  of  S.  Semitic  sages.  It  would  be  easy  to 
pursue  this  subject  further,  did  time  permit. 

(g)  1  Kings  X.  28  f.     Horses  from  Egypt  ? 
"  Is  it  in  the  least  probable  that  they  ever  had 

1  Toy,  Enc.  Biblica,  "  Wisdom  Literature,"  §  2. 


174  Bible  Problems 

an  export-trade  in  horses,  when  we  consider  the 
lack  of  extensive  pastures  in  Egypt  ? "  ^  It  is 
true  that  in  the  Amarna  tablets  Egyptian  feu- 
datories in  Palestine  request  chariots  and  horses 
of  the  Egyptian  king.  But  no  one  doubts  that 
the  Egyptian  kings  had  horses  for  their  own  use, 
and,  under  special  pressure,  could  furnish  them 
to  their  feudatories,  and  in  the  same  tablets  we 
find  other  princes  offering  to  supply  them  to 
the  king.  Recent  critics,  following  Winckler, 
have  supposed  that  it  is  a  N.  Syrian  and 
Cilician  land  called  (as  if  to  plague  the  critics) 
Musri,  and  famous  in  antiquity  for  its  horses, 
that  is  meant  in  1  Kings  x.  28  f.  But  to  this 
view  there  are  several  objections,  notably  the 
fact  that,  unless  2  Kings  vii.  6  be  an  exception, 
there  is  according  to  the  new  theory  no  further 
reference  to  a  N.  Syrian  Misrim,  but  abundant 
reference  to  a  N.  Arabian.  But  2  Kings 
vii.  6  is  not  an  exception.  We  are  there- 
fore driven  back  on  the  supposition  that  the 
country  meant  is  the  N.  Arabian  Musri.     It 

1  Enc,  Biblica,  "  Mizraim/'  §  2a. 


Old  Testament  175 

is  true,  we  have  been  accustomed  to  think 
that  the  Arabian  horse  was  not  known  outside 
Arabia  before  the  Christian  era.  But  if  on 
other  grounds  there  are  passages  of  the  Old 
Testament  which  refer  to  the  Arabian  horse, 
must  we  not  reconsider  our  opinion  ?  Provi- 
sionally this  is  all  that  need  be  said.  There  is 
at  any  rate  no  escape  from  the  admission  that 
1  Kings  X.  28/*.  records  Solomon's  importation 
of  horses  from  the  N.  Arabian  land  of  Musri. 

(h)  It  is  stated  in  the  ordinary  text  of 
1  Kings  xi.  18  and  40  that  Hadad  and  Jero- 
boam both  sought  refuge  in  Misraim  (Egypt). 
It  is  much  more  natural,  however,  to  suppose 
that  they  fled  to  Misrini  (Musri).^  The  king 
of  Musri,  who  had  given  Solomon  a  wife,  was 
naturally  disposed,  out  of  selfish  motives,  to 
play  off  Hadad  and  Jeroboam  against  his 
ambitious  son-in-law. 

(i)  With  regard  to  2  Kings  vii.  6,  the  nearest 

1  Cheyne,  Jewish  Quarterly  Review,  July  1899^  pp.  551- 
568.  Winckler,  Geschichte  Israels,  ii.,  1900,  pp.  269-273, 
agrees  independently  on  the  main  point. 


176  Bible  Problems 

allies  the  Israelites  were  likely  to  obtain  were 
the  so-called  Hittites  and  the  N.  Arabian 
Misrites.  An  old  connexion  existed  between 
the  Israelites  and  both  these  populations. 
David  had  a  "  Hittite "  among  his  chief 
warriors  (2  Sam.  xi.  3,  xxiii.  39),  and  Solomon 
was  alternately  on  good  terms  and  on  bad  with 
the  king  of  the  N.  Arabian  Misrites.  The 
"  Hittites  "  referred  to  were  most  probably  the 
neighbours  of  the  N.  Arabian  Misrites.  The 
other  view,  viz.  that  the  Hittites  and  Misrites 
were  from  N.  Syria,  is  less  probable,  (1) 
because  these  northern  peoples  cannot  be 
shown  to  be  elsewhere  referred  to,  and  (2) 
because  of  the  expression  "  the  king  of  Israel 
has  hired  against  us."  The  Arabians  were 
born  mercenaries. 

{k)  The  alliance  referred  to  in  Isa.  xxx.  2, 
xxxi.  1,  was  probably  not  with  Egypt,  but  with 
Musri.  Even  if  " Hanes  "in  v,  4  can  be  plaus- 
ibly identified,^  we  must  still  ask  why  this 
place  (whether  this  or  that  Egyptian  city  be 
1  See^  however^  Enc.  Bihlica,  "Hanes." 


old  Testament  177 

meant)  should  be  mentioned  at  all.  At  the 
very  least,  vv,  6  and  7  must  refer  to  a  journey 
to  Musri/  but  there  seems  to  be  no  sufficient 
reason  for  stopping  short  here.  Sargon  speaks 
of  Pir  u,  king  of  Musri,  in  the  very  same  terms 
which  are  used  v,  7b  by  the  prophetic  writer. 

(/)  Amos  i.  9,  as  the  text  stands,  contains 
a  threat  against  Tyre.  But  "  Tyre  "  between 
Ashdod  and  Edom  cannot  be  right.  The 
theory  of  interpolation  would  be  inadequate, 
Clearly  this  is  one  of  the  cases  in  which  Sor 
(Tyre)  has  been  miswritten  for  Missor  (Musri). 
It  would  seem,  then,  that  the  Misrite  as  well 
as  the  Edomite  people  was  regarded  as  a 
"brother"  of  Israel. 

(m,  n)  Joel  iii.  9  and  Ps.  Ix.  9  must  be 
taken  together.  In  the  former  passage 
"  Egypt "  and  "  Edom  "  are  grouped  together, 
without  any  apparent  reason.  In  the  latter 
the  "strong  city"  and  "Edom"  do  not  pro- 

1  First  worked  out  by  Cheyne,  Isaiah,  in  Paul  Haupt's 
edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  p.  102,  on  the  basis  of 
Winckler.  See  K.A.T.,  3rd  ed.,  pp.  172/,  and  cp.  Marti 
ad  loc. 

12 


178  Bible  Problems 

duce  a  parallelism.  The  remedy  is  easy. 
"Egypt"  should  of  course  be  Misrim,  and 
"  the  strong  city "  should  be  "  unto  Missor." 
Thus  the  lands  of  Musri  and  of  Edom  are 
parallel,  just  as  they  are  parallel  in  the  mis- 
understood passage,  Am.  i.  9. 

(0)  On  the  passages  in  which  "  Shihor " 
and  "Misraim"  (Egypt)  are  combined,  see 
Note  xv.,  pp.  268/. 

I  have  to  refer  next  to  a  few  passages  in 
which  the  N.  Arabian  Kush,  which  has  been 
found  by  Winckler  in  the  cuneiform  in- 
scriptions, is  almost  beyond  reasonable  doubt 
referred  to.  Here  too,  if  I  am  wrong,  I 
hope  that  some  one  will  do  me  the  favour 
to  refute  me,  showing  how  the  various  facts 
can  be  more  adequately  accounted  for. 

(a)  Gen.  ii.  13.  The  mention  of  Havilah 
in  t;.  11  makes  it  extremely  probable  that 
the   N.    Arabian   Kush  is  meant.^     Whether 

1  Winckler  agrees  with  me,  but  explains  Kush  to  mean 
S.  Arabia  ;  the  same  name,  he  remarks,  as  that  given  to 
Nubia,  from  a  fantastically  wrong  geographical  conception. 
But  he  himself  tells  us  that  "  Kusi  and  Meluhha  "  is  the 


old  Testament  179 

the  geography  of  the  description  of  Paradise 
is  quite  as  fantastic  as  a  good  authority  has 
supposed,^  seems  to  me  very  doubtful.  It 
may  be  mentioned  here  that  Hiddekel  (see 
Enc,  Bib,,  s,v,)  is  certainly  not  the  Tigris, 
and  that  Perath  (Engl.  Bible,  "  Euphrates ") 
is  probably  the  short  for  Ephrath,  which  is 
a  southern  name  (cp.  1  Chr.  ii.  19),  distorted 
in  Num.  xxii.  5  into  "  Pethor "  (for  the  view 
here  rejected  see  Dillmann  or  G.  B.  Gray 
on  Numbers).  This  is  also  the  true  explana- 
tion of  Perath  in  Jer.  xiii.  4  ff, 

{b)  Gen.  x.  6.  Kush  and  Misrim  (not 
Misraim)  are  both  sons  of  Ham,  i.e.  Jerah- 
meel.  We  have  now  some  guidance  in 
explaining  the  sons  of  Kush  and  Misrim,  a 
subject  which  I  must  of  course  leave  un- 
touched at  present. 

(c)  Num.  xii.  1.      Why  did   Moses  marry 


usual  designation  of  N.  Arabia.  The  Old  Testament 
passages  seem  to  me  to  point  to  N.  Arabia^  as  in  the  case 
of  Musri. 

1  Winckler,  K.A.T.,  3rd  ed.,  pp.  137-144. 


i8o  Bible  Problems 

an  "Ethiopian  woman"  (so  Auth.  Vers., 
after  Septuagint)  ?  Why  indeed?  But  the 
Hebrew  has  "Kushite";  a  N.  Arabian 
woman  is  meant,  presumably  Zipporah. 

{d)  Judg.  ii.  10.  "  Kushan  -  rishathaim, 
king  of  Aram-naharaim,"  is  a  highly  problem- 
atical personage.  "Kushan,"  however,  gives 
us  the  key.  The  original  tradition  made  him 
a  N.  Arabian.  Cp.  on  (p),  and  Critica  Biblica 
on  the  passage. 

{e)  2  S.  xviii.  21.  It  is  important  histori- 
cally that  David  had  a  Kushite  among  his 
young  men,  for  everything  tends  to  show 
that  David  himself  sprang  from  the  N. 
Arabian  border-land. 

{f)  Isa.  XX.  3.  The  peoples  which  Sargon, 
we  are  told,  will  bring  to  nought  are  the 
Misrites  and  the  Kushites.  Underneath  the 
troublesome  "three  years"  in  v.  3  —  no  one 
can  make  the  text  quite  clear  —  lies  the 
word  "  Ishmaelites,"  a  gloss  on  "  Misrim  and 
Kush." 

{g)  Isa.   xlii.   3  and  xlv.   14.      Here   again 


Old  Testament  i8i 

it  is  the  Misrites  and  the  Kushites  of  N. 
Arabia  who  are  meant;  a  miswritten  gloss 
in  the  latter  passage  states  that  these  and 
the  Sabaeans  are  men  of  Jerahmeel.  Where 
one  branch  of  JerahmeeUtes  lived,  we  know 
from  Gen.  xxv.  18,  1  S.  xv.  7 ;  *'  Ishmael " 
and  "  Amalek "  are  both  synonyms  of 
Jerahmeel. 

(A)  Hab.  iii.  7.  "  Kushan,"  which  is  parallel 
to  "  Midian,"  is  of  course  not  "  Ethiopia " 
(as  the  Septuagint),  but  the  N.  Arabian  Kush. 
Cp.  on  {d), 

(i)  Ps.  Ixxxvii.  4,  a  proof-passage  both  for 
Missor  and  for  Kush.  The  right  reading  is, 
"  Behold  PhiUstia  and  Missor,  with  Kush." 

(k)  2  Chr.  xiv.  9.  Zerah  was  surely  not 
an  Ethiopian  (a  view  which  is  very  difficult 
to  make  plausible),  but  a  N.  Arabian  Kushite 
(see  Enc.  Bib.,  "Zerah").  The  N.  Arabians 
made  periodical  raids  on  IsraeUtish  territory. 

(/)  2  Chr.  xxi.  16.  "The  spirit  of  the 
Philistines  and  of  the  Arabians  which  are 
beside  the   Ethiopians"  (Revised  Version)  is 


1 82  Bible  Problems 

very  strange.    Plainly  the  N.  Arabian  Kushites 
are  meant. 

I  make  no  apology  for  the  length  of  this 
examination  of  passages.  It  would  indeed 
be  hard  to  exaggerate  the  importance  of  the 
task  which  I  have  undertaken.  The  light- 
hearted  way  in  which  commentators  allude 
to  this  subject  is  very  much  to  be  regretted. 
One  remark,  however  unwelcome,  or  at  least 
troublesome,  to  those  who  investigate  Hebrew 
names,  I  am  bound  to  add,  viz.  that  there 
are  a  number  of  passages  in  which  another 
N.  Arabian  double  of  a  well-known  name 
occurs.  I  do  not  now  refer  to  those  in 
which  a  N.  Arabian  Aram  is  most  probably 
referred  to,  because  this  interpretation  of  the 
passages  rests  at  present  solely  on  exegetical 
necessities  and  on  the  inherent  probability 
derived  from  analogies.  The  name  I  refer 
to  is  Asshur  (see  Note  xv.),  in  my  view  of 
which  I  am  supported  by  Professor  Hommel, 
who  rests  his  own  argument  largely  on  the 
Minsean  inscriptions.      I  may   add   that   this 


old  Testament  183 

name  also  occurs  in  the  more  original  form 
Ashhur,  as  well  as  in  various  corrupted  forms 
such  as  Shur  and  the  personal  name  Sisera 
{s  is  duplicated,  and  a  transposed),  while 
Ashhur  sometimes  becomes  Shihor,  Hur, 
Geshur,  Achish,  and  very  possibly  Kush. 
That  the  southern  Asshur  does  not  appear 
in  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  can  hardly  be 
thought  strange.  Kus  at  any  rate  is  found, 
and  Kus  or  Kush,  like  Achish,  possibly  comes 
from  and  represents  Ashhur  (see  p.  270). 

To  form  a  decided  opinion  on  all  the  details 
here  referred  to,  would  of  course  be  im- 
possible for  ordinary  students.  But  even  a 
slight  examination  will  show  that  there  must 
be  a  good  deal  in  these  researches,  and  that 
it  is  by  no  means  a  rash  opinion  that  the 
history  of  Israel  was  largely  affected  by 
Arabian  as  well  as  Babylonian  influences. 
That  the  textual  criticism  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment is  passing  into  a  new  phase,  must  be 
obvious,  however  troublesome  this  may  be. 
On  some  of  the  details  it  may  be  long  before 


184  Bible  Problems 

even  a  fairly  good  critic  can  see  his  way,  for 
mighty  is  the  power  of  prejudice,  and  the 
tendency  to  minimize  unwelcome  facts  is 
universal.  Still  it  is  not  a  rash  opinion  that 
by  utilizing  Winckler's  discovery  scholars 
who  are  not  afraid  to  dig  down  into  the 
two  recensions  of  the  Hebrew  text^  may  be 
enabled  to  restore  much  of  the  original  text 
sufficiently  for  historical  purposes.  In  two 
recent  articles  in  the  Hibhert  Journal'^  I 
have  endeavoured  to  show  where  I  myself 
stand,  and  to  explain  my  principles  to  the 
larger  public.  I  have  also  in  the  Encyclopcedia 
Biblica^  and  in  its  sequel,  Critica  Biblica,  and 
lastly  in  my  new  Book  of  Psalms  (1904), 
shown  how  these  principles  work  out  in 
practice.  If  life  and  health  are  granted  me, 
1  will  not  only  go  on  correcting  my  own 
faults — for  who  can  escape  faults? — but  also 
treat  some  of  the  new  historical  and  exegetical 

1  The  Massoretic  or  received  Hebrew  text^  and  the 
Septuagintal,  i.e.  the  Hebrew  text  which  hes  most  directly 
underneath  the  Septuagint  Greek  version. 

2  In  July  and  October  1903. 


Old  Testament  185 

questions  that  are  arising  more  fully  and 
connectedly.  At  present  I  must  be  content 
with  having  borne  some  part  in  laying  the 
foundation  for  the  advanced  critical  work  of 
the  future. 

The  truth  must  by  degrees  make  its  way. 
It  is  a  fact,  which  cannot  be  argued  out  of 
existence,  that  we  have  recently  acquired  two 
new  keys  to  the  Old  Testament,  by  which 
great  problems  are  being  brought  nearer  to 
a  solution.  One  is  furnished  by  a  critical 
Assyriology,  soon,  we  may  hope,  to  be  rein- 
forced from  S.  Arabia;  the  other,  by  a  more 
methodical  textual  criticism.  I  invite  you  to 
give  your  interest  and  sympathy,  not  only  to 
those  who  are,  if  I  may  with  all  respect 
say  so,  only  gently  progressive,  but  to  those 
who  are  full  of  a  keen  enthusiasm  for  the 
use  of  those  precious  keys.  I  have  shown 
you  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  critical  sug- 
gestion in  a  recent  Assyriological  discovery 
which  has  a  close  bearing  on  textual  criticism. 
Pardon  me  if  I   devote  some  of  the  closing 


1 86  Bible  Problems 

words  of  my  Lecture  to  this  most  important 
subject. 

The  Hebrew  text,  as  it  stands,  is  a  valuable 
record  of  what,  according  to  the  later  scribes 
and  writers,  the  sacred  monuments  of  their 
history  and  religion  ought  to  have  been.  To 
those  scholars  who  enable  us  to  understand 
better  what  those  scribes  and  editors  meant, 
we  owe  our  gratitude.  But  equal  thanks  must 
surely  be  due  to  those  who,  combining  rever- 
ence with  freedom,  and  using  new  methods 
as  well  as  old,  endeavour  to  reproduce  to 
some  extent  what  the  ancient  Israelitish 
writers  actually  said. 

Have  I  succeeded  in  making  myself  fully 
understood?  The  strength  of  educational 
prejudices  may,  with  some,  have  hindered 
this.  I  will  therefore  try  to  explain  myself 
more  plainly.  There  are,  as  I  venture  to 
think,  two  gi^eat  works  for  Old  Testament 
scholars  to  do  in  the  text.  One  is  to  find 
out,  with  the  help  of  the  versions,  what 
meaning   or  meanings  the  last  editors  of  the 


old  TestamenT*"-  ' — 187 

Old  Testament  put  upon  the  text,  when 
that  text  had  ah*eady  suffered  greatly  from 
corruption.  The  other  is  to  approximate  as 
closely  as  possible  to  the  true  text  and  to  its 
meaning  by  looking  underneath  the  received 
Hebrew  text  and  that  presupposed  by  the 
Septuagint.  These  two  works  ought  to  be 
kept  quite  distinct.  To  attempt  to  explain 
the  traditional  text  on  the  theory  that  it  is 
not  very  seriously  corrupt,  and  that  by  the 
comparison  of  Arabic  and  Assyrian  words, 
or  by  grammatical  subtleties,  the  meaning  of 
the  original  writers  can  be  extracted  from  it, 
does  not  appear  to  be  the  most  critical  course. 
And  the  same  judgment  must  be  passed  on 
those  scholars  who,  though  aware  to  some 
extent  of  the  serious  corruption  of  the  text, 
seek  to  correct  it  without  taking  any  account 
of  Winckler's  discovery  of  Musri  and  Kus 
in  the  inscriptions,  and  of  the  most  obvious 
of  the  corrections  of  the  Hebrew  text  which 
have  resulted  from  this. 

At  the  same  time  let  me  once  more  cordially 


1 88  Bible  Problems 

admit  that  much  fine  work  has  been  done  by 
my  old  comrades  from  their  own  point  of 
view.  It  is  highly  desirable  to  have  the 
tradition  put  before  us  with  as  impressive  an 
array  of  arguments  in  its  favour  as  possible. 
If  I  may  quote  words  which  were  deliberately 
chosen,  and  which  at  present  I  am  unable  to 
modify,  "weU  does  it  {i.e,  the  tradition) 
deserve  the  patient  and  thoughtful  study 
which  a  succession  of  modern  scholars  have 
given  to  it,  though  one  may  fear  that  this 
patient  scholarship  has  sometimes  been  un- 
consciously devoted  to  propping  up  unsound 
conclusions."  ^ 

But  will  not  this  new  critical  doctrine 
weaken  the  moral  authority  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment Scriptures  ?  The  question  implies  an 
inadequate  comprehension  of  the  doctrine. 
For  the  essence  of  my  teaching  is  that  we  have 
two   Old  Testaments,  one   only  accessible  in 

1  The  Book  of  Psalms  (1904)^  by  the  present  writer, 
Introduction,  p.  x.  The  conclusions  refeiTed  to  above  are 
often  unsound  simply  because  the  tradition  is  often  pure 
guesswork. 


old  Testament  189 

a  fragmentary  form,  the  other  complete ;  the 
one  precious  to  the  historian,  the  other  of 
the  utmost  value  for  us  all,  because  it  is  the 
authorized  expression  of  the  ancient  Jewish 
Church.  My  views  tend  to  increased  con- 
servatism in  the  rendering  of  the  text  of  the 
Jewish  Old  Testament.  As  a  student  I  value 
this  text  very  highly  as  a  record  of  the  attitude 
of  Judaism  towards  its  own  past,  and  as  a 
Christian  Churchman  too  I  continue  to  value 
highly  the  traditional  form  of  the  Jewish 
Scriptures.  But  as  a  historian  of  ancient 
Israel  I  need  something  else,  and  1  also  think 
that  when  the  present  turmoil  has  been  stilled, 
those  who  now  speak  evil  of  me,  and  of  all 
who  seek  to  reconstruct  history  on  a  large 
scale,  will  become  eager  to  have  a  share  in  the 
fuller  development  of  the  new  system. 

My  fellow-Churchmen  I  I  am  well  aware  that 
your  heart  is  chiefly  in  the  New  Testament, 
but  thorough  students  of  the  New  Testament 
cannot  afford  to  neglect  the  Old,  or,  I  would 
rather  say,   those  who  would   dig  deep  into 


I  go  Bible  Problems 

early  Christian  antiquity  must  not  ignore 
either  the  pre-Christian  Jewish  rehgion  or 
the  pre-Jewish  religion  and  history  of  Israel. 
There  is  no  sharp  line  of  distinction  between 
Jewish  and  Christian;  the  Christian  religion 
is  a  synthesis,  and  only  those  who  have  dim 
eyes  can  assert  that  the  intellectual  empires  of 
Babylon  and  Persia  have  fallen.  Babylon  in 
particular  has  left  its  mark  both  on  many  parts 
of  the  Old  and  on  some  parts  of  the  New 
Testament.  And  yet,  the  more  we  recognize 
the  sjmcretism  both  of  Judaism  and  of 
Christianity,  the  more,  if  we  have  any  feeling 
for  religion,  shall  we  be  conscious  of  a  some- 
thing which  is  peculiar  to  them,  and  it  is  for 
those  critics,  who  like  all  true  Churchmen 
have  a  deep  sense  of  rehgion,  but  who  super- 
add to  this  trained  historical  insight,  to  make 
the  Church  at  large  understand  wherein  this 
peculiarity  consists. 


NOTES 

Note  I.,  to  p.  71. 

The  discouragement  given  by  Prof.  Harnack 
to  the  study  of  myths,  with  a  view  to  illustrate 
the  statement  of  Christ's  Virgin-birth,  is  to  be 
regretted.  But  in  the  interesting  note  in  his 
History  of  Dogma,  already  referred  to,  there 
is  one  remark  which  appears  very  suggestive, 
and  which  is  certainly  based  on  a  sound 
intuition.  It  is  that  the  earhest  development 
of  Christian  doctrine  "is  free  from  heathen 
myths  so  far  as  these  had  not  already  been 
received  by  wide  circles  of  Jews,  .  .  .  which 
in  the  case  of  the  idea  of  the  Virgin-birth  is 
not  demonstrable."  Certainly  the  "idea"  of 
the  Virgin-birth,  held,  as  it  appears,  by  some 
Jewish  Christians,  could  not  be  of  non-Jewish 

191 


192  Bible  Problems 

mythic  origin,  unless  it  had  first  of  all  been 
accepted  in  Jewish  circles.  But,  as  Prof. 
Gunkel  has  pointed  out,  Jewish  syncretism 
began  early,  and  the  same  scholar  sees  very 
clearly  that  the  "idea"  must  have  found 
acceptance  among  the  Jews,  and  (to  use  his 
own  words)  have  "belonged  to  the  Christo- 
logical  dogma"  before  the  birth  of  Jesus. 
Unfortunately  he  cannot  venture  to  point  to 
any  actually  extant  Jewish  story  as  the  original 
of  the  Jewish-Christian  statement.  To  me, 
I  confess,  this  attitude  of  resignation  seems 
unnecessary,  and,  as  it  happens,  the  Jewish 
story,  which  I  have  myself  ventured  to  single 
out  as  probably  the  required  original,  has  been 
very  ably  treated  by  Prof  Gunkel  in  another 
but  not  remotely  separated  connexion.  That 
on  the  most  important  point  we  are  completely 
agreed,  has  already  been  mentioned.  Prof. 
Harnack's  final  assertion  that  "it  is  in  point 
of  method  not  permissible  to  stray  so  far  "  (as 
the  comparative  mythologists  seem  to  him  to 
have  done),  "  when  we  have  near  at  hand  such 


Notes  193 

a  complete  explanation  as  Isaiah  vii.  14,"  would 

be  controverted  by  Prof.  Gunkel  as  earnestly 

as  it  is  by  me.     On  this  matter,  scholars  need, 

I  think,  to  be  brought,  by  persuasive  pleading, 

into  a  larger  measure  of  agreement.     Let  me 

add  a  few  words  upon  it. 

It  has  been  too  much  overlooked  that  the 

mistranslation  of  ha-ahiah  in  the  Septuagint 

of  Isaiah  vii.  14  is  so  far  from  accounting  for 

the  belief  in  the  Virgin-birth  of  Christ  that  it 

requires   to   be  explained  itself.     There  is  no 

reason  whatever  to  suppose  that  the  Septuagint 

translator  decided  upon  the  rendering  rj  irapOipog 

from  philological  considerations.     Jerome  may 

have  traced  'almah  to  the  root  'dlam,  "  to  hide  " 

{significat  virginem  absconditam),  but  it  is  not 

probable  that   there  was   any   such   tradition 

among  the  Septuagint  translators,  who  in  four 

passages  render  *almah  by  veavi^s  (as  Aq.,  Symm., 

and  Theod.  in  Isaiah  vii.  14).     In  Gen.  xxiv.  43, 

the  rj  TrapOevog  of  the  Septuagint  (for  ha-almah) 

is   simply   a   loose   rendering  which  does  not 

affect  the  sense,  and  might  quite  as  well  have 

13 


194  Bible  Problems 

been  given  in  Ex.  ii.  8.  But  in  Isa.  vii.  14 
the  translator  must  have  had  some  special 
motive,  and  that  motive  must  have  been  not 
philological,  but,  if  I  may  say  so,  ideological. 
Baldensperger  {Die  messianisch-apokalyptischen 
Hoffnungen,  1903,  p.  200)  thinks  that  Jewish 
writers  may  already  have  begun  to  reflect  upon 
the  religious  value  of  virginity  and  sexual 
abstinence.  This  is  not  satisfactory ;  a  more 
concrete  explanation  is  wanting.  Nor  need 
we  look  far  for  it,  if  we  do  not  on  principle 
reject  the  help  of  comparative  mythology. 
(See  p.  82.) 

As  for  the  quotation  in  Matt.  i.  22  /!, 
it  is  perfectly  well  accounted  for  as  one  of 
the  subsidiary  Biblical  proofs  which  were 
habitually  sought  for  by  the  evangelists. 
The  real  supports  of  their  statements  were 
traditions  of  one  kind  or  another,  but  their 
belief  in  the  written  word  of  prophecy  led 
them  to  look  for  a  justification  of  these 
traditions  in  the  prophetic  scriptures,  and 
with  this  amount  of  justice,  that   sometimes 


Notes  195 

the    traditions    and    the     prophecies    had    a 
common  origin. 

Another  scholar  (Dr  A.  Wright)  deserves 
credit  for  denying  that  the  statement  in 
Matt.  i.  18  has  arisen  out  of  a  mistranslation. 
"  We  cannot  allow,"  he  says,  "  that  this  error 
gave  rise  to  the  doctrine."  He  thinks  that 
"  in  other  cases  where  quotations  from  the 
Old  Testament  are  introduced,  .  .  .  the 
quotation  is  later  than  the  context "  {Synopsis, 
Introd.,  p.  xli.).  It  is  at  any  rate  probable 
that  there  were  current  collections  of  pas- 
sages from  the  prophets  which  were  inter- 
preted Messianically,  and  were  used  by  the 
evangelists. 

Note  II.,  to  p.  77. 

A.  Babylonian  affinities  of  the  story  in 
Rev.  xii. — I  hold  with  Prof  Gunkel  that 
the  story  referred  to  has  arisen  out  of 
an  ancient  mythologic  tradition  of  a  World- 
Redeemer  which  had  become  "  international," 
but    was    ultimately    of    Babylonian    origin. 


196  Bible  Problems 

Let  me  illustrate  and  explain  this  statement. 
Prof.  Fritz  Hommel,  in  1890,  declared  that 
the  dragon  in  Rev.  xii.  must  be  the  dragon 
Tiamat,  and  Prof.  Hermann  Gunkel,  in  1895 
(in  his  fine  work,  Die  Schopfung  und  Chaos), 
pointed  out  a  number  of  features  in  that 
strange  narrative  which  appeared  to  him  to 
suggest  that  it  arose  out  of  a  Babylonian 
myth.^  He  could  not  indeed  find  exactly 
such  a  myth  in  the  Babylonian  records  as 
yet  brought  to  light,  but  that,  considering 
our  limited  knowledge,  cannot  be  said  to  be 
an  important  objection.  That  the  seven- 
headed  dragon  (Rev.  xii.  3),  also  called  "  the 
ancient  serpent "  (6  o^ts  6  apxp^o^,  v,  9,  xx.  2), 
is  no  other  than  Tiamat,  whom  the  god  of 
the  springtide  sun  —  Marduk  —  encountered 
and  overcame,  and  with  whom  Prof.  Friedrich 
Delitzsch^  long  ago  identified  the  *' seven- 
headed  serpent "  of  the  primitive  Babylonians, 
he  had  no  difficulty  in  showing.     That  Tiamat 

1  Schopfung,  pp.  379-398. 

2  Wo  lag  das  Paradies,  1881,  p.  148. 


Notes  197 

is  imagined  as  a  monster  of  the  watery  abyss 
is  in  accordance  with  what  we  read  in  vv,  15 
and  16.  She  is  also  said  to  have  had  a 
portion  of  the  newly-produced  gods  on  her 
side  ;  so  in  v,  7  we  hear  of  "  the  dragon  and 
his  angels."  Prof  Gunkel  has  also  pointed 
out  striking  points  of  contact  between  Rev. 
xii.  and  Dan.  vii.,  and  argues  that  since  the 
former  passage  cannot  possibly  be  viewed  as 
an  imitation  of  the  latter/  and  since  Dan.  vii. 
has  been  proved  (by  himself)  to  have  strong 
Babylonian  affinities,  we  cannot  do  otherwise 
than  assume  a  Babylonian  origin  for  Rev.  xii. 

Prof.  Gunkel's  theory  has  found  an  assailant 
in  Bousset,  who,  besides  objecting  to  two 
points  of  detail,  thinks  the  Babylonian  origin 
rather  assumed  than  proved.^  That  is  true ; 
but  the  ultimate  Babylonian  origin  remains 
probable,  only  we  must  put  it  far  back  in 

^  Gunkel  also  compares  Rev.  xii.  4fl  (the  dragon's  tail 
drawing  the  third  part  of  the  stars,  and  casting  them  to 
the  earth)  with  Dan.  viii.  10  (the  little  horn  casting  down 
some  of  the  stars  to  the  ground). 

2  Die  Offenbarung  Joha?inis,  pp.  408-410. 


198  Bible  Problems 

primitive  times.  That  an  old  sun-myth  has 
been  worked  up  in  Rev.  xii.  is  not  denied ; 
on  the  contrary,  Bousset  (who  is  followed  by 
Porter,  in  Hastings,  Diet,  Bible,  "  Revelation  "  ) 
also  energetically  affirms  this.  Gunkel  on  his 
side  now  definitely  asserts  that  the  mythic 
material  of  Rev.  xii.  must  have  become  "  inter- 
national" in  a  primitive  period.^  This  is  no 
doubt  a  necessary  concession,  and  may  now 
be  regarded  as  practically  certain. 

B.  Has  the  story  Egyptian  affinities 'i — 
Bousset  {Offenb.,  pp.  410  f,)  shows  that  it 
has.  "  The  woman,  the  mother  of  the  child, 
becomes  the  great  Mother  of  the  gods — Hathor 
(or,  as  she  is  also  represented,  Isis) ;  ^  the  child 
is  the  young  sun-god  Horus;  the  dragon  is 
Typhon.^     [Hathor  is  represented  in  Egyptian 

1  Zum  religibsen  Verst'dndniss  des  N.T.,  1903^  p.  55. 

2  The  characteristic  point  in  the  Isis  myth  is  that  this 
goddess  is  the  mother  of  Horus ;  whether  or  not  she  was 
represented  as  the  consort  of  Osiris^  was  indifferent 
(Roscher,  Lex.  der  Mi/tkologie,  ii.   1,  col.  364<). 

3  Gunkel  {Verst'dndniss,  p.  51  j  note  1)  remarks  that  in 
Egyptian  mythology  Typhon  is  described  as  red  (Plutarch, 
De  hide  et  Osiride,  22,  30 ;  Eus._,  Prcep.  Ev.,  iii.  3). 


Notes  199 

monuments  with  a  sun  on  her  head ;  Horus 
is  called  the  beautiful  boy;  his  birthday  is 
celebrated  at  the  opening  of  spring.  The 
most  favourite  symbols  for  Typhon  (Set)  are 
the  dragon,  the  serpent,  and  the  crocodile. 
In  the  Gnostic  Pistis  Sophia  the  dragon  who 
pursues  Sophia  has  seven  heads.]  After 
Osiris  has  been  killed  by  Set,  the  woman, 
who  is  pursued  by  Typhon,  collects  his  bones, 
and  in  a  wonderful  way  bears  her  child,  the 
young  sun-god.  Then  she  escapes  on  a  skiff 
of  papyrus,  passes  through  the  marshes,  and 
places  herself  in  safety  on  the  legendary 
floating  island  of  Chemmis.  According  to 
another  variant,  she  bears  the  young  sun-god 
Horus  there."  Brugsch,  from  whose  Religion 
und  Mythologie  der  Aegypter  Bousset  draws 
these  details,  gives  a  hymn  to  Osiris  which 
contains  the  statement,  "  She  makes  air  with 
her  plumage,  and  produces  wind  with  her 
wings,"  which  reminds  us  of  the  wings  of  the 
great  eagle  (Rev.  xii.  14) ;  the  sacred  bird  of 
Hathor-Nechbit  was  the  vulture.     The  same 


200  Bible  Problems 

hymn  mentions  the  victory  of  Horus  over  the 
dragon  (see  Note  hi.,  p.  212).  Bousset,  then, 
appears  to  me  to  have  done  well  to  cite  the 
myth  of  Hathor  and  Horus.  A  primitive 
contact  between  the  early  Egyptian  race  and 
the  Babylonians  has  been  made  extremely  pro- 
bable by  Hommel.  Winckler,  too,  remarks 
with  justice  that  the  cultus  of  the  Horus-child 
belongs  to  the  same  religion  as  the  Baby- 
lonian, and  is  in  this  sense  Semitic  {Arabisch- 
Seinitisch-Orientalisch,  1901,  p.  127,  note  2). 

c.  Has  it  Persian  {Zoroastrian)  affinities'^. — 
Recent  scholars  have  come  to  the  conclusion 
that  there  were  close  relations  in  early  times 
between  the  Iranian  and  the  Babylonian 
religions ;  for  this  see  Oldenberg,  in  the 
Zeitschrift  of  the  German  Oriental  Society, 
1893,  pp.  46-48.  This  seems  to  give  in- 
creased importance  to  the  traces  of  a  Persian 
story  parallel  to  that  which  we  have  to  postu- 
late for  early  Babylonia.  There  is  in  fact  a 
Zoroastrian  legend  of  the  Virgin-birth  of  the 
Saviour,   and   in   the   legend   referred   to  the 


Notes  20 1 

Virgin  appears  to  have  arisen  out  of  a  star- 
goddess ;  the  mythic  dragon,  however,  plays 
no  part  in  the  story.  The  Saviour  is  the 
famous  Saoshyant  (so  the  name  is  given  in 
the  Avesta),  i.e.  the  Beneficent  One,  who  is 
to  conquer  the  demons,  raise  the  dead,  and 
ultimately  renew  the  world.  This  last  great 
act  is  the  close  of  the  protracted  world-drama, 
and  may  remind  us  of  the  Biblical  references 
to  new  heavens  and  a  new  earth  (see  Ency- 
clopcedia  Biblica,  "  Zoroastrianism,"  §  23) — ^the 
technical  name,  often  referred  to,  is  frasho- 
kereti.  This  Saoshyant  is  represented  in  a 
late  but  important  collection  of  expanded 
early  Zoroastrian  traditions,  called  the 
Bundahish,  as  born  of  a  Virgin  in  a  super- 
natural way  to  the  heroic  semi-mythical 
prophet  Zoroaster  (Zarathustra,  Zaratust). 
The  son  of  Zoroaster  had  been  wonderfully 
preserved  by  an  angel,  who  in  due  time  was 
to  "blend  it  with  a  mother"  {Bund.,  xxxii. 
8  /!).  This  was  the  last  of  the  posthumous 
sons   assigned  to   Zoroaster,   or,   as  one  may 


202  Bible  Problems 

say,  the  last  of  the  Messiahs ;  for  more  about 
him  see  West's  translations  from  the  Zoro- 
astrian  Scriptures  in  the  Sacred  Books  of  the 
East,  vols.  V.  and  xxiv.^  Here  it  is  only 
necessary  to  mention  the  grounds  of  the 
preceding  statement  respecting  the  legend 
of  Saoshyant's  virgin-birth.  His  destined 
birthplace  is  said  to  have  borne  the  significant 
name  "  Mountain  of  the  Lord."  Can  one  doubt 
as  to  the  original  meaning  of  this?  Have 
we  not  here  the  counterpart  of  the  mountain 
of  the  divine  beings,  so  familiar  to  us  in  the 
Babylonian  mythology  ?  In  a  later  tradition, 
which  strikes  one  as  genuinely  Iranian,  a 
star  is  spoken  of  which  descends  on  the  sacred 
mountain,  and  contains  within  itself  the  form 
either  of  a  little  boy  with  the  appearance  of  a 
cross  over  him,  or  of  a  virgin.^     In  either  case, 

1  Not  only  are  there  scattered  notices  of  Saoshyant  and 
his  work  in  the  Avesta,  but  two  passages  of  the  19th  Yasht 
give  more  detailed  statements.  Thus  the  Bundahish  is 
justified.  See  Hiibschmann,  Jakrbiicker  fur  Protestantische 
Theologie,  1879,  p-  235. 

2  Boklen,  Die  Verwandtschaft,  etc.,  pp.  97,  100. 


Notes  203 

the  descent  of  this  star  from  heaven  to  the 
earth-mountain  (or  mountain  of  the  gods) 
indicates  the  supernatural  birth  of  the  Child- 
Saviour,  and  the  tradition  which  connects  the 
star  with  a  virgin  is  parallel  to  the  description 
of  the  woman  in  heavenly  attire  in  Rev.  xii.  1, 
while  the  reference  to  the  virgin  in  the  star 
suggests  that  the  mother  of  the  child  was  the 
deity  called  by  the  Babylonians  Istar,  who 
was  very  probably^  connected  in  early  times 
with  the  zodiacal  sign  Spica  ( =  Virgo).  In 
this  connexion  it  is  natural  to  refer  to  the 
beautiful  story  of  the  Magi  guided  to 
Bethlehem  by  a  star  (Matt.  ii.  1-12).  The 
star  of  the  Magi  was  in  fact  probably  sug- 
gested by  the  star  which  symbolized  the 
Saviour's  mother  (cp.  Rev.  xii.  1).  See  one 
of  the  eschatological  prophecies  ascribed  to 
Zoroaster,  quoted  by  Boklen,  Die  Kerwandt- 
schqft  der  judisch-christlichen  mit  der  Parsischen 
Eschatologie,  1902,  p.  100. 

D.  Are  there  Greek  affinities  ? — It  has  been 

^  See  Zimmern,  K,A.T.,  3rd  ed.,  p.  427. 


204  Bible  Problems 

suggested  by  Dr  Rendel  Harris  {Homeric 
Centones)  that  vv,  1  and  2  reveal  the  influence 
of  Horner.^  One  would  at  any  rate  hardly 
expect  to  find  this,  and  more  attention  is  due 
to  a  theory  of  Prof.  A.  Dieterich  {Abraocas, 
1891,  pp.  117/:),  called  "not  improbable" 
by  Prof.  A.  Jiilicher  in  Enc,  Biblica,  col. 
2011,  and  adopted  by  Prof.  Otto  Pfleiderer 
{Das  Christusbild  des  urchristlichen  Glaubens, 
1903,  pp.  38^).  The  opinion  of  this  scholar 
is  that  the  story  of  the  dragon  pursuing  the 
child  in  Rev.  xii.  3-5  is  a  recast  of  the  Greek 
myth  (transmitted  by  Hyginus)  of  the  great 
dragon  Pytho  pursuing  the  pregnant  Leto  to 
destroy  her,  because  of  a  prophecy  that  the 
son  of  Leto  would  slay  him.  The  wind-god 
Boreas,  we  are  told,  carried  Leto  to  Poseidon, 
who  brought  her  to  Ortygia,  and  covered  the 
island  with  the  waves  of  the  sea.  Not  finding 
Leto,  Pytho  returned  to  Parnassus,  and  Leto's 
child  Apollo  was   born   in   perfect   safety   on 

^  "ISivO^  icfxivT]  fJLeya  crrjjjia '  SpciKtov  ctti  vcora  Sa<f>OLVos, 
2/xcpSaXeos  ....  (Iliad,  ii.  308  f.) 


Notes  205 

the  island,  which  was  raised  out  of  the  sea 
by  Poseidon.  On  the  fourth  day  after  his 
birth,  Apollo,  the  destined  avenger,  slew  the 
dragon. 

Evidently  this  myth  stands  in  some  histori- 
cal connexion  with  the  description  in  Rev.  xii.  ; 
the  reference  to  the  prophecy  of  the  fate  of 
Pytho  throws  much-needed  light  on  the  state- 
ment in  V.  4  of  the  dragon's  animosity  towards 
the  "  woman."  It  was  plausible,  therefore,  to 
conjecture  that  the  myth  of  Leto  was  known 
in  the  circles  to  which  the  author  of  the  Johan- 
nine  Apocalypse  belonged.  In  fact,  there  are 
coins  from  Asia  Minor  which  bear  representa- 
tions of  the  flying  Leto,  and  if,  as  Dieterich 
holds,  the  author  was  a  Hellenistic  Christian 
of  Ephesus,  he  would  naturally  hear  more  talk 
of  Leto  and  her  son  than  of  the  serpent. 

Still  it  is  not  at  all  certain  that  Dieterich's 
view  of  the  authorship  of  the  Apocalypse  is 
correct.  This  is  most  probably  a  composite 
work,  and  to  assume  that  Rev.  xii.  and  what- 
ever hangs  together  with  it  is  of  Hellenistic 


2o6  Bible  Problems 

Ephesian  origin,  would  be  extremely  hazardous. 
To  trace  it  directly  to  a  Greek  myth,  is  incon- 
sistent with  sound  method.  It  may  well  be, 
however,  that  the  Greek  myth  of  Leto  is  a 
recast  of  an  Oriental  myth,  ultimately  derived 
from  Babylonia.  Robertson  Smith  suspected 
that  the  name  Leto  came  from  that  of  the 
Arabian  goddess  Al-Lat  (see  p.  74,  note  2). 
One  would  rather,  perhaps,  connect  it  with  the 
name  of  the  Babylonian  AUatu,  who,  though 
best  known  as  queen  of  the  underworld,  seems 
to  have  been  originally  a  consort  of  Bel,  the 
god  worshipped  at  Nippur  (see  Jastrow,  Relig, 
of  Bab,  and  Ass,,  pp.  104,  587). 

To  sum  up.  The  affinities  between  the 
story  of  the  Messiah's  birth  in  Rev.  xii.  1 
and  various  non-Jewish  myths  prove  that  a 
mythic  tradition  of  the  birth  of  a  Redeemer 
had  become  international.  Its  origin  is  Baby- 
lonian. See  further  Gunkel,  Schopfung,  pp. 
283  ff, ;  Bousset,  Die  Offenbarung  Johannis, 
pp.  4i06ff,  ;  £]nc.  Biblica,  "Apocalypse,"  §  41. 
For   a  popularization   of  the   view   that   the 


Notes  207 

conception  of  a  divine  or  miraculous  birth  of 
Christ  is  of  Greek  origin,  see  Slade  Butler, 
"  The  Virgin-Birth,"  Nineteenth  Century  and 
After,  July  1904,  p.  87. 


Note  III.,  to  p.  78,  note  1. 

It  was  very  natural  for  earlier  critics  to 
explain  what  is  said  of  the  dragon  in  various 
strange  apocalyptic  descriptions  from  Zoro- 
astrian  sources.  It  was  equally  natural  for 
Gunkel,  who  opened  a  new  line  of  interpreta- 
tion for  the  Apocalypse,  to  turn  the  attention 
of  scholars  to  the  dragon-myth  of  that  great 
teacher  of  the  nations — Babylonia.  The  truth, 
however,  which  is  now  coming  out,  is  that 
Babylonian,  Egyptian,  and  Iranian  or  Persian 
mj^hs  (all  of  which  have  to  be  registered  and 
compared  with  the  statements  in  the  Apoca- 
lypse) are  all  akin,  and  profoundly  affected  the 
world  within  the  sphere  of  their  influence.  I 
have  myself  long  ago  traced  both  the  Baby- 
lonian and  the  Egyptian  dragon-myth  in  the 


2o8  Bible  Problems 

Old  Testament,  but  not  until  lately  in  the 
Apocalypse.  Here  I  confess  myself  to  have 
been  too  long  dazzled  by  the  overpoweringly 
strong  evidence  of  Zoroastrian  influence  in 
the  very  peculiar  statements  of  Rev.  xx.  1-7, 
10,  14/ 

Students  of  to-day  have  an  easier  task, 
though  doubtless,  until  the  more  prominent 
teachers  of  the  Bible  become  converted  to 
modern  views,  it  will  still  require  some  strength 
of  mind  to  resist  the  temptations  to  a  mis- 
placed "sobriety"  and  "caution."  Caution, 
of  course,  is  always  needful  in  certain  obscure 
points,  but  the  right  of  these  researches,  and 
some  at  least  of  the  results,  are  established. 
It  is  well,  however,  that  those  who  are  en- 
gaged in  them  should  remember  that  there 
was  a  primaeval  period  before  the  myths  had 
obtained  any  consistency.  It  would  be  a  mis- 
take to  suppose  that  any  developed  form  of 
the  dragon-myth  known  to  us  is,  strictly 
speaking,  primitive.  On  this  subject  Prof. 
Keane   (in   the   introduction   to   the    English 


Notes  209 

translation  of  Bousset's  Antichrist)  has  given 
some  suggestions. 

The  strangeness  of  the  statements  in  Rev. 
XX.  1-7,  10,  and  14/.  can  hardly  be  exagger- 
ated. The  story  of  Gog  and  Magog  in  vv,  8 
and  9  is  plainly  based  on  Ezek.  xxxviii.  2- 
xxxix.  16  (ep.  also  the  Ethiopia  Enoch,  chap. 
Ivi.).  But  there  is,  I  think,  no  parallel  in  the 
later  Jewish  literature  to  the  strongly  mythi- 
cal account  of  the  binding  of  the  dragon  for 
a  thousand  years,  and  his  subsequent  release. 
It  must  therefore  be  a  relatively  early  im- 
portation from  a  foreign  source,  and  have  not 
altogether  commended  itself  to  Jewish  writers 
in  general.  Its  source  is  either  a  Zoroastrian 
myth  (not  of  course  in  a  written  form),  or 
some  story  which  has  a  common  origin  with 
that  myth.  The  Zoroastrian  story  will  be 
found  in  the  Bundahish.  It  tells  of  a  fight 
in  the  heavenly  world  (cp.  Rev.  xii.  7,  xix. 
11),  between  Ahura  Mazda  (Ormazd)  and  his 
helpers  on  the  one  hand,  and  Angra  Mainyu 

( Ahriman)  and  his  helpers  on  the  other,  ending 

14 


2IO  Bible  Problems 

with  the  final  breaking  of  the  power  of  evil ; 
also  of  the  fate  of  the  serpent  Azhi  Dahaka, 
whom  Fredun  was  unable  to  kill,  but  confined 
in  Mount  Dimavand.  *'  When  he  becomes 
unfettered,"  we  are  told,  '*  Sam  arises,  and 
smites  and  slays  him."  It  also  speaks  of  the 
burning  of  the  serpent  Gokihar  in  molten 
metal.  Evidently  this  last  tradition  is  closely 
connected  with  the  description  in  Rev.  xx.  10. 
From  such  a  non-Jewish  myth,  and  not  from 
Dan.  vii.  11,  the  writer  of  that  passage  appears 
to  me  to  have  drawn.  It  is  true,  the  beast 
"terrible  and  strong  exceedingly"  (Dan.  vii. 
7)  which  at  length  "was  slain,  and  his  body 
destroyed,  and  given  to  the  burning  flame" 
(t;.  11),  is  clearly  parallel  to  the  dragon  of  the 
Apocalypse.  There  are,  however,  great  diffi- 
culties in  the  way  of  assuming  the  dependence 
of  the  Apocalyptic  writer  here  or  anywhere  on 
Dan.  vii.,^  and  the  most  probable  view  is  that  the 
writers  of  both  works  are  dependent  on  some 
form  of  the  wide-spread  Oriental  dragon-m3rth. 

1  Cp.  Gunkel,  Schopfung  und  Chaos ^  pp.  358  ffi 


Notes  211 

The  statement  (Rev.  xx.  2)  of  the  millennial 
binding  of  Satan,^  or  the  dragon  (originally 
two  independent  figures,  but  here  virtually 
identical),  is  another  Zoroastrian  feature  to  be 
noticed.  The  restraint  put  upon  Satan  (for 
which  cp.  Test.  Levi,  18,  Beliar  said  to  be 
bound  by  the  Messiah)  may  indeed  also  be 
Babylonian,  but  the  millennium  is  not  to  be 
found  in  any  known  form  of  the  corresponding 
Babylonian  m5rth.  In  the  Bundahish,  however, 
the  duration  of  the  world  is  given  as  12,000 
years,  divided  into  periods  of  3000  years.  At 
the  end  of  the  last  millennium  Soshyans 
(  =  Saoshyant)  shall  appear.  Thus  the  mil- 
lennial division  is  characteristically  Zoroastrian. 
The  duration  of  the  period  of  Azhi  Dahaka's 
imprisonment  is  given  in  the  Bahman  Yasht 
(iii.  55)  as  9000  years.^  A  Zoroastrian  origin 
for  the   millennium   may  therefore   fairly  be 

^  The  "  Satan  "  is  analogous  to  the  Zoroastrian  Druj, 
the  spirit  of  falsehood,  and  chief  of  the  helpers  of  Ahriman  ; 
almost  indeed  to  Ahriman  himself. 

2  Cp.  the  Talmudic  view  that  the  Messianic  kingdom 
will  last  1000  (or  2000)  years. 


212  Bible  Problems 

suspected  (see  Enc,  Biblica,  "  Millennium," 
§§  1,  2,  and  cp.  "  Zoroastrianism,"  §  15). 

But  has  the  Egyptian  dragon-  or  serpent- 
myth  no  affinities  to  the  Apocalyptic  dragon- 
or  serpent -stories  ?  On  the  contrary.  The 
defeat  and  final  destruction  of  the  gigantic 
serpent  Apopi  (Apap)  and  his  fellows,  when 
chaos  gave  place  to  order,  and  darkness 
to  light,  was  not  final.  Day  by  day  the 
struggle  between  the  serpent  and  the  sun-god 
is  renewed.  This  is  one  form  of  the  Egyptian 
myth.^  According  to  another,  Horus  with 
his  sharp  sword  blinds  the  monster,  and 
imprisons  him  in  the  underworld ;  afterwards 
the  dragon  is  consumed  by  fire.^ 

But  was  there  no  parallel  Babylonian  myth 
in  circulation  ?  Zimmern  mentions  none.  It 
is  impossible,  however,  to  believe  that  the 
myth  of  Marduk's  struggle  with  Tiamat  was 
not  at  length  moralized  by  the  Babylonians 

^  Cheyne,  Job  and  Solomon,  p.  76  ;  cp.  Maspero^  Datvn  of 
Civilization,  pp.  90  f.,  159  ;  Book  of  the  Dead,  xv._,  xxxix. 

2  See  the  Hjrmn  to  Osiris  quoted  by  Bousset,  Offenharung, 
p.  411  (cp.  p.  500,  note  12). 


Notes  213 

themselves,  and  that  they  did  not  look  forward 
to  a  golden  age,  in  the  "  fulness  of  the  times," 
when  the  power  of  evil,  represented  by  the 
dragon,  would  be  finally  broken.  Surely  this 
gifted  people,  which  certainly  had  the  concep- 
tion of  periods  of  the  world  and  recurrent 
cycles,^  cannot  have  failed  to  develop  this 
idea.  Surely  too  there  were  many  more 
myths  than  the  cuneiform  tablets  have  as  yet 
presented  to  us.  For  the  same  reason,  it  is 
presumed  elsewhere  (see  pp.  195-197)  that 
there  was  a  Babylonian  myth  of  the  birth  of 
Marduk,  in  which  the  dragon  had  a  part  to 
play,  though  we  cannot  as  yet  point  to  it. 


Note  IV.,  to  p.  73. 

The  subject  of  this  note  is,  first,  the  interpre- 
tation of  "  one  like  a  son  of  man  "  (Dan.  vii. 
13),  and  next,  the  explanation  of  "Michael" 
(Dan.  X.  13,  21,  xii.  1,  Rev.  xii.  7).     It  will  be 

1  See  K.A.T.,  3rd  ed.,  pp.  317  f.,  332/.  (Winckler), 
383,  392/  (Zimmem). 


214  Bible  Problems 

seen  that  these  two  appellations  must  be  treated 
in  combination,  and  in  relation  to  the  new 
facts  of  archaeology  and  of  Jewish  literature. 
The  first  passage,  Dan.  vii.  13/!,  runs  thus  in 
the  Revised  Version : — 

I  saw  in  the  night  visions^  and_,  behold,  there  came  with 
the  clouds  of  heaven  one  like  unto  a  son  of  man,  and  he 
came  even  to  the  ancient  of  days,  and  they  brought  him 
near  before  him.  And  there  was  given  him  dominion,  and 
glory,  and  a  kingdom,  that  all  the  peoples,  nations,  and 
languages  should  serve  him :  his  dominion  is  an  everlasting 
dominion,  which  shall  not  pass  away,  and  his  kingdom  that 
which  shall  not  be  destroyed. 

I  have  ventured  to  say  that  this  passage 
from  the  pattern  Apocalypse  gave  a  great 
impulse  to  the  Messianic  belief  among  the 
Jews,  and  that  the  form  of  the  reference  to 
the  Messiah  (for  such  a  reference  I  hold  that 
there  is)  shows  that  the  Messianic  idea  had 
already  a  development  behind  it.  That  an 
impulse  was  given  to  Messianism  by  Dan.  vii. 
13  jf.,  is  too  plain  to  need  proving,  and  that 
the  Messianic  idea  was  not  expressed  by  the 
Apocalyptist  for  the  first  time  is  shown  by  the 
absence  of  any  special  explanation  of  the  title, 


Notes  215 

"  one  like  a  son  of  man  " ;  who  the  personage 
so  denominated  was,  the  circle  of  readers  of 
the  original  Apocalypse  of  Daniel  must  have 
known. 

It  should  be  noted  here  (1)  that  the  phrase 
in  our  Bible,  "  one  like  unto  a  son  of  man,"  is 
unnecessarily  obscure.  In  the  recent  German 
translation  of  the  Old  Testament  intended  for 
general  use  and  edited  by  Prof.  Kautzsch 
the  rendering  is  "  one  who  resembled  a  man," 
and  this  is  certainly  the  meaning.  (2)  That 
according  to  many  scholars  the  personage  re- 
ferred to  is  not  the  Messiah,  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  this  interpretation  is  already  sanctioned 
by  chap.  xlvi.  of  the  Book  of  Enoch,  and  by 
2  Esdras  xiii.  3,  as  well  as  by  the  evangeUsts. 
The  objections  raised  are — (1)  that  the  person- 
age in  vii.  13  is  only  said  to  resemble  a  man, 
not  to  be  a  man,  and  (2)  that  the  Messiah 
could  hardly  have  been  thus  solemnly  intro- 
duced only  to  be  dismissed  again ;  in  fact,  in 
the  subsequent  deliverance  Michael  seems  to 
fill  the  place  which  one  would  have  expected 


2i6  Bible  Problems 

to  be  given  to  the  Messiah.  Hence  (a)  some 
would  regard  the  Being  Uke  a  son  of  man 
(  =  Uke  a  man)  as  a  mere  symbol  of  the  people 
of  Israel,  for  which  the  explanation  of  the 
vision  {vv,  18,  22,  27)  may  seem  to  plead, 
and  others  (b)  as  an  angel,  presumably  Michael, 
the  great  prince-angel  who  defends  the  inter- 
ests of  the  people  of  Israel  (Dan.  x.  21,  xii.  1 ; 
cp.  Enoch  XX.  5).  One  of  those,  however, 
who  have  suggested  the  latter  view  "is  inclined 
to  look  for  a  still  higher  Being,  whose  name  is 
significantly  withheld,  like  that  of  the  numen 
of  Penuel  (Gen.  xxxii.  29),  at  the  same  time 
a  most  exalted  personal  intermediary  between 
God  and  the  world,  and  a  transcendent  proto- 
type of  the  God-pleasing  humanity  ultimately 
to  be  realized  in  the  people  of  the  most  High."  ^ 
It  is  in  favour  of  the  second  view,^  that  else- 

^  The  scholar  referred  to  is  Prof.  Julius  Grill,  from 
whom  Prof.  N.  Schmidt  quotes  the  description  given 
above  {Enc.  Biblica,  col.  4710). 

2  Prof.  N.  Schmidt^  the  first  exponent  of  the  Michael 
theory  (Journal  of  Biblical  Literature,  vol.  xix.,  1900),  has 
pointed  this  out. 


Notes  217 

where  too  in  Daniel  angels  are  represented  as 
having  the  appearance  of  men  (Dan.  viii.  15, 
X.  16,  18 ;  cp.  iii.  25,  ix.  21,  x.  5,  xii.  6/.),  and 
certainly,  if  an  angel  really  is  meant  in  vii.  13, 
it  must  be  Michael,  for  both  here  and  in  xii.  1 
(where  Michael  is  expressly  mentioned)  the 
high  angel  spoken  of  has  the  same  function, 
viz.  that  of  delivering  the  people  of  Israel.^ 
The  objection  that  if  Israel  is  represented  by 
its  prince-angel  Michael,  the  hostile  nations 
ought  also  to  be  represented  by  their  angelic 
guardians,  is  unimportant.  The  description  is 
evidently  influenced  by  the  primitive  Baby- 
lonian dragon-myth.  Michael  corresponds  to 
Marduk,^  and  his  enemies  are  naturally  repre- 
sented by  the  beast  "  dreadful  and  terrible  and 

1  Having  regard  to  vii.  11,  12,  we  cannot  but  suppose 
that  the  Being  resembling  a  man  (v.  1 3)  has  come  from  the 
slaughter  of  the  beasts. 

2  This  has  been  well  shown  by  Dr  Smythe- Palmer  (^Bab, 
Injluence  on  the  Bible,  1897,  pp.  101  f.\  who  also  maintains 
that  the  archangel  Michael  is  "  an  official  manifestation  " 
of  Christ  '*in  His  relation  to  the  angels."  Cp.  Bousset, 
Der  Antichrist  (1895),  p.  151.  One  step  further,  and  we 
shall  get  close  up  to  the  truth. 


2i8  Bible  Problems 

strong  exceedingly"  (vii.  7).  To  the  further 
objection  that  the  explanation  in  vv.  18,  22,  27, 
makes  no  mention  of  Michael  or  of  any  angel, 
but  of  the  people  of  the  saints  (or  holy  ones), 
it  is  a  complete  answer  that  the  apocalyptic 
writer  cannot  be  expected  to  have  had  more 
than  a  faint  comprehension  of  the  old  mythic 
tradition.  He  is,  however,  in  this  case,  as  we 
shall  see  presently,  near  enough  to  the  mark. 

The  student  who  weighs  the  above  argu- 
ments will,  I  hope,  conclude  that  the  Being 
resembling  a  man  in  Dan.  vii.  13  is  very 
probably  no  other  than  the  prince  -  angel 
Michael.  I  leave  it  provisionally  open  whether 
"  angel "  is  altogether  the  right  title  for  this 
exalted  personage.  Dan.  vii.  13  thus  becomes 
parallel  in  its  presuppositions  to  Rev.  xii.  7, 
where  Michael  and  his  angels  are  said  to  have 
fought  against  the  dragon  and  his  angels. 

But,  it  will  be  asked,  why  is  Michael 
called,  in  Dan.  vii.  13,  "  one  like  a  son  of 
man"?  To  this  more  than  one  answer  may 
be   given.      (1)    He    may  perhaps   be    called 


Notes  219 

so  because  he  is  one  of  those  heavenly  beings 
(four  ?  or  seven  ? ),  who  mediate  between  the 
"  Ancient  of  days  "  (ie,  the  everlasting  God) 
and  mankind,  and  who  therefore  veil  their 
brightness,  and  appear  in  a  fully  recognizable 
human  form.  This,  however,  is  not  quite 
satisfactory.  The  Most  High  God  is  also 
represented  as  a  man,  and  in  Rev.  i.  13  we 
find  the  Being  "like  a  son  of  man"  (Le,  in 
the  Book  of  Revelation,  the  Messiah)  described 
partly  in  terms  borrowed  from  the  description 
of  the  "Ancient  of  days"  in  Dan.  vii.  9. 
In  fact,  the  primitive  view  of  Yahwe  un- 
doubtedly was  that  He  was  in  appearance 
like  a  glorified  man  (Gen.  i.  26,  where 
Elohim  is  certainly  =  Yahwe).  (2)  Another 
answer,  not  without  plausibility,  may  be 
given.  It  has  already  been  offered  by 
Zimmern^  and  GunkeP  to  account  for  the 
phrase  "the  man"  in  2  Esdras  xiii.  1,  for 
"  the  son  of  man "  in  the  Similitudes  of  the 

1  K.A.T.,  3rd  ed.,  pp.  891  # 

2  Verstandniss,  p.  47,  note  2. 


220  Bible  Problems 

(Ethiopic)  Book  of  Enoch,  in  the  Synoptic 
Gospels,  and  in  Acts  vii.  56,  and  for  "the 
second  man  from  heaven"  (1  Cor.  xv.  47, 
best  reading),  and,  even  if  not  strictly  correct, 
may  very  likely  point  in  the  right  direction. 
The  theory  is  that  *'  man "  was  the  name 
of  one  of  the  Babylonian  signs  of  the  zodiac. 
The  four  living  beings  in  Ezekiel  are  most 
probably  derived  from  the  zodiacal  signs  at 
the  boundary  points  of  the  four  quarters  of 
the  heaven,^  and  which  may  be  respectively — 
Lion,  Eagle,  Bull,  and  Scorpion-man  (  =  Man, 
in  Ezek.  i.  10,  x.  14,  Rev.  iv.  7).  It  is  not 
necessary,  however,  that  the  same  "  man " 
should  be  meant  in  the  cryptic  terms  "son 
of  man "  and  "  man "  in  the  apocalypses 
and  the  literature  influenced  by  them,  for 
there  were  a  number  of  imaginary  "  men " 
in  the  starry  heaven  of  the  Babylonians. 
It  is  true  that  we  should  have  expected 
"  bull,"  the  Babylonian  prototype  of  the 
"  being  like  a  man "  being  Marduk,  whose 
1  See  Zimmern,  K.A.T.,  pp.  631  f 


Notes  221 

sign  was  the  Bull.  Was  Marduk  originally 
connected  with  some  one  of  the  manlike 
beings  among  the  zodiacal  signs  ?  It  may 
also  appear  somewhat  strange  to  us  that 
such  a  vague-sounding  expression  as  **  the 
man "  should  be  the  designation  of  an  im- 
portant personage  in  the  coming  close  of  the 
present  age.^  But  cryptic  titles  are  surely 
common  enough  in  apocalyptic  literature. 
Moreover,  the  spell  of  Babylon  was  strong. 
Titles  which  were  no  longer  understood  (as 
in  the  supposed  case)  survived  among  peoples 
whose  culture  was  derived  from  that  great 
metropolis  of  ancient  culture.  This  theory 
is  not  yet  fully  proved,  but  is  not  unhkely 
to  be  correct. 

The  Being  resembling  a  son  of  man  is 
therefore  called  so  with  a  deep  meaning;  he 
is  also,  as  we  have  seen,  most  probably  Michael. 
Besides  this,  he  is  (one  may  with  some  confi- 
dence assert)  the  Messiah.  (1)  The  most  pre- 
valent of  the  early  Jewish  interpretations  of 

1  N.  Schmidt,  Enc.  Biblica,  «  Son  of  Man,"  §  33. 


222  Bible  Problems 

that  remarkable  phrase  is  the  Messianic.  (2) 
One  has  a  right  to  expect  the  subduer  of  the 
four  beasts  in  Dan.  vii.  to  be  the  Messiah 
or  World-Redeemer,  because  of  the  strong 
Babylonian  colouring  of  this  chapter  as  a 
whole.  ^  The  identification  here  proposed  ac- 
counts, among  other  things,  for  the  otherwise 
strange  fact  that  in  Rev.  xii.  7  the  dragon's 
antagonist  is  Michael,  whereas  in  xvii.  14  and 
xix.  11  the  successful  warrior  is  the  Messiah. 
The  usual  explanation  is  that  in  the  preliminary 
struggle  Michael,  and  not  the  Messiah,  is  the 
champion  of  God's  cause,  because  the  Messiah 
is  still  a  child.  But  this  is  a  later  arrangement 
due  to  an  ingenious  speculator  ;  in  the  original 
Apocalypse  (or  in  the  document  on  which 
Rev.  xii.  is  based)  Michael  probably  was  the 
Messiah.  And  here  it  is  appropriate  to  refer 
to  the  suggestion  mentioned  above,  that  the 
personage   introduced    in    Dan.   vii.    13   is   a 

1  The  four  beasts,  or  living  creatures,  are  suggested  by 
Tiamat  and  her  helpers ;  the  fourth  indeed  is  the  dragon 
Tiamat  herself.     Cp.  Gunkel,  Schopfung,  pp.  323  ff. 


Notes  223 

highly  exalted  Being,  the  mediator  between 
God  and  the  world,  whose  name,  like  that  of 
the  divinity  at  Penuel,^  is  significantly  withheld. 
For  the  probability  is — though  I  ask  readers  to 
wait  for  further  corroboration  of  this — that 
Michael  is  not  the  original  name  of  this  great 
Being,  but  a  name  which  was  modified  in 
comparatively  later  times,  and  became — to  the 
edification  of  all  pious  Jews — Michael,  that  is, 
"  Who  is  Uke  God  ? "  To  express  myself 
more  clearly,  I  hold  it  to  be  as  good  as  certain 
that  Michael  is  a  degraded  (but  an  honour- 
ably degraded)  deity.  And  it  then  becomes 
very  probable  that  this  too  is  the  name  referred 
to  in  that  mysterious  passage  of  the  Johannine 
Apocalypse,  "and  he  hath  a  name  written, 
which  no  man  knoweth  but  he  himself"  (Rev. 
xix.  12).  Into  this,  however,  I  cannot  now 
enter ;  it  would  involve  too  great  a  digression. 
Who,  then,  is  the  "  great  prince  "  Michael, 

1  Gen.  xxxii.  29;  cp.  Judges  xiii.  17  jff:,  and  see  Critica 
Biblica  on  the  passage.  The  older  criticism  is  well  summed 
up  by  G.  F.  Moore,  Commentary  on  Judges  (1895). 


2  24  Bible  Problems 

with  whom  we  have  identified  both  the 
"  Being  hke  a  son  of  man  "  and  the  Messiah  ? 
He  is  not  a  Hebraized  form  of  any  one  of 
the  Zoroastrian  Amesha  Spentas^  (or  Am- 
shaspands),  the  six  councillors  and  helpers  of 
the  great  God  Ahura  Mazda  (or  Ormazd). 
He  might  indeed  be  so,  were  it  not  for  his 
connexion  with  the  dragon-myth,  which  is 
primarily  Babylonian.  But  the  truth  is  that 
he  corresponds  rather  to  Marduk  (Merodach), 
the  son  of  Ea,  and  to  Nabu  (Nebo),  the  son 
of  Marduk,  —  originally  perhaps  identical 
(Zimmern)  —  in  the  genealogical  system   of 


1  That  is.  Holy  Immortals.  Ahura  Mazda  is  often 
counted  with  these  exalted  beings,  thus  producing  seven. 
This  suggests  that  originally  the  Amesha  Spentas  were 
not  personified  abstractions  but  divinities ;  cp.  the  seven 
planetary  gods  of  the  Babylonians.  That  the  seven 
archangels  of  the  Jews  and  the  early  Christians  (regarded 
as  a  form  of  belief)  partly  owe  their  origin  to  the 
Zoroastrian  system,  is  probable  enough.  But  this  only 
means  that  Babylonian  influences  worked  indirectly 
through  Iranian,  or,  as  one  may  say,  a  primitive  Babylonian 
myth  had  become  international.  See  Enc.  BiblicUy 
'"  Angel,"  §  4,  note  1,  and  cp.  Zimmern,  K.A.T.,  3rd  ed., 
p.  625. 


Notes  225 

Babylonian  theology.  If  Michael  is  not  only 
a  warrior  but  (according  to  later  Jewish 
writers)  the  messenger  and  mediator  of  the 
Most  High,  and  an  intercessor  for  man,^  so 
also  is  Marduk.^  Nabu,  too,  is  represented^ 
as  a  messenger  of  the  gods ;  he  is  also  the 
writer-god,   by  whom  the   destinies   of  men 

1  See  Test.  xii.  Patr.y  Dan  6,  **  Draw  near  unto  God  and 
unto  the  angel  who  prays  for  you  ;  for  he  is  the  mediator 
between  God  and  man  for  the  peace  of  Israel "  ;  Levi  5, 
**  And  I  said  to  him,  I  pray,  O  Lord,  tell  me  thy  name 
.  .  .  And  he  said,  I  am  the  angel  who  intercedes  for 
the  race  of  Israel,  that  they  may  not  altogether  tread 
them  down."  Cp.  Judah  25,  "And  the  Lord  blessed 
Levi ;  the  angel  of  the  countenance  (blessed)  me."  In 
Levi  3  we  hear  of  "  the  angels  of  the  countenance  of  the 
Lord  who  minister  and  who  supplicate  the  Lord  for  all 
the  failings  of  the  righteous."  These  may  be  develop- 
ments of  Michael  (but  cp.  Eth.  Enoch,  xl.  2  ff.).  See 
further  Lueken,  Michael  (1898),  pp.  9-12.  This  writer 
goes  so  far  as  to  say  (p.  40)  that  Michael  may  even  be 
called  -the  "acting  Under-god."  In  Enoch  Ixix.  14  jf.  it 
is  he  who  is  the  actual  preserver  of  the  world. 

2  "  Ea  is  rarely  approached  directly.  At  his  side  stands 
his  son  Marduk,  who  acts  as  a  mediator  "  (Jastrow,  Religion 
of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  p.  276).  See  also  especially 
Zimmem^  op.  cit,  pp.  372  Jf;;  Voter,  Sohn,  und  Fiirsprecher 
in  der  Bahyl.  Gottesvorstellung,  1 896  ;  and  Jastrow's  review- 
articlcj  Journal  of  American  Theology,  i.  468  ffl 

^  See  Zimmem,  op.  cit,  pp.  400-403,  454. 

15 


2  26  Bible  Problems 

are  written  down  on  the  heavenly  tablets, 
which  reminds  us  of  the  mysterious  writer 
among  the  seven  celestial  men,  who  sets  a 
mark  upon  those  of  the  inhabitants  of  Jeru- 
salem who  are  destined  to  life^  (Ezek.  ix. 
1-4),  and  of  him  who  was  one  of  the  seven 
(or  four)  "  white  ones,"  and  who  had  a  note- 
book for  registering  facts  concerning  the 
seventy  shepherd -angels  in  (Ethiopic)  Enoch 
Ixxix.  61,  xc.  14,  22,  which  reminds  us,  as 
one  may  probably  add,  of  Michael. 

According  to  the  Books  of  Daniel  and 
Revelation  and  various  early  Christian  docu- 
ments^ this  great  superhuman  (and  originally 
divine)  personage  has  the  work  of  sub- 
duing the  evil  principle  at  the  end  of  the 
present  age.  (The  Biblical  passages  already 
indicated  are  Dan.  [vii.  13],  xii.  1,  Rev.  xii. 
7,  [xix.  11],  and  to  these  we  shall  presently 
see  reason  to  add  Rev.  xx.  1.)     But  is  there 

1  See  Gunkel,  Arckiv  fur  Religionstvissenschaft,  i.  294- 
300  ;  Zimmeriij  op.  cit.,  p.  404. 

2  See  Lueken,  Michael,  pp.  106-110 ;  cp.  p.  27. 


Notes  227 

no  trace  remaining  of  his  activity  at  an  earlier 
period?  Surely  there  must  be.  It  is  the 
theory  of  the  ancient  East  that  history  con- 
sists of  recurrent  cycles.  The  tyranny  of  the 
power  of  evil  at  the  close  of  this  age  and  its 
final  subduing  is  but  the  counterpart  of  that 
same  tyranny  and  of  its  (temporary)  overthrow 
in  the  beginning  of  the  process  of  the  ages. 
If  Michael,  the  heavenly  Messiah,  redeems 
the  world  and  mankind — especially  Israel — 
in  the  latter  days,  he  must  surely  have  done 
so  when  the  powers  of  evil  combined  to 
thwart  the  powers  of  good  in  the  primaeval 
times.  The  Babylonian  Redeemer — Marduk 
— achieved  the  overthrow  of  Tiamat  ''in  the 
beginning,"  and  though  we  hear  little  of  his 
activity  at  the  foundation  of  the  Babylonian 
people,  yet  we  do  know  that  he  was  revered 
as  the  founder  of  the  sacred  cities  and  temples 
of  Babylonia.  And  have  the  Hebrew  records 
nothing  parallel  to  say  ?  Is  it  not  clear  from 
the  form  of  the  references  to  Michael  in 
Daniel  that  this  mighty  personage  has  already 


228  Bible  Problems 

a  history  behind  him  ?  Surely,  if  we  open 
our  eyes,  we  shall  see  that  the  older  Scriptures 
are  not  silent. 

In  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis  the  creation 
of  the  world  is  assigned  to  Elohim,  a  name 
which,  as  no  one  can  doubt,  represents  Yahw^ 
(misread  Jehovah).  But  in  t;.  26  we  are  told 
that  Elohim  said,  "  Let  us  make  man  in  our 
image,  after  our  likeness."  It  is  not  enough 
to  explain  that  God  is  represented  as  including 
with  Himself  His  celestial  court  (1  Kings 
xxii.  19^  ;  Isa.  vi.  8  ;  Ps.  Ixxxix.  5,  6,  etc.), 
and  consulting  with  them,  before  creating  the 
highest  of  His  works,  man,^  nor  that  the  plural 
may  be  that  of  majesty  (a  technical  term), 
which  is  Dillmann  s  view.  It  is  Yahwe  (the 
Elohim,  or  Deity,  of  Israel  and  de  jure  of 
the  world)  who  consults  with  the  exalted 
divine  Beings  subordinate  to  Himself,  and 
proposes  to  them  the  creation  of  Man  in  the 

^  Prof.  Driver  {Genesis,  ad  loc.)  remarks  that  this  is 
the  usual  Jewish  interpretation^  and  also  that  of  some 
Christians,  notably  Franz  Delitzsch. 


Notes  229 

likeness  of  the  divine  Beings.  It  is  co-opera- 
tion, not  mere  sympathy,  that  he  demands. 
Just  as  in  Babylonian  myths  Marduk  has  the 
co-operation  of  another  deity  in  the  making 
of  man,  so  in  the  Hebrew  narrative,  which 
(like  the  story  in  Rev.  xii.)  is  based  on  a 
mythic  tradition,  Yahwe  the  Creator  calls  for 
the  co-operation  of  the  subordinate  deities,  or, 
may  it  not  be  ?  of  a  subordinate  deity,  namely 
Michael.^ 

Of  Michael's  activity  in  the  making  of 
Israel,  and  in  the  legendary  events  which 
preceded  it,  the  Jewish  Midrash  asserted 
that  it  knew  a  great  deal,^  and  I  venture 
to  think  that  there  is  more  in  this  assertion 
of  the  Midrash  than  our  too  often  dull 
exegesis  is  willing  to  recognize.  Of  course, 
however,  I  only  refer  to  this  behef  as  a  curious 

1  The  name,  as  has  been  already  remarked,  is  probably 
not  the  original  one.  But  I  must  not  allow  myself 
to  be  tempted  into  side-paths.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  a 
methodical  search  in  the  Old  Testament  itself  has  been, 
as  I  venture  to  think,  amply  rewarded. 

2  See  Lueken,  Michael j  pp.  15-19. 


230  Bible  Problems 

coincidence,  for  what  I  offer  here  has  its  own 
critical  basis,  which  cannot  owe  anything  to 
the  non-critical  wisdom  of  the  Midrash.  I 
would  first  direct  the  reader's  attention  to  a 
phrase  which  occurs  often  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, but  is  specially  characteristic  of  Genesis, 
Numbers,  and  Judges,  and  which  has  given 
great  trouble  to  critics;  it  is  that  rendered 
''  angel  of  the  Lord  "  (correctly  enough,  except 
that  "  the  Lord  "  should  be  "  Yahwe  ").  The 
phrase  "  angel  of  God  (Elohim)"  also  occurs, 
and  means  the  same  thing.  The  problem  is 
to  account  for  the  fact  that  the  "  angel  of 
Yahwe "  (or  "  of  Elohim ")  is  not  a  mere 
messenger  of  Yahwe,  but  equivalent  to  Yahwe 
or  Elohim  himself  (see  especially  Gen.  xvi.  13, 
cp.  7 ;  xxii.  1,  cp.  11 ;  Ex.  iii.  4,  cp.  2 ; 
xiii.  21,  cp.  xiv.  19 ;  Judg.  vi.  14,  cp.  12  ; 
xiii.  23,  cp.  3,  etc.),  and  yet  in  some  sense  is 
distinguishable  from  Yahwe  (Gen.  xvi.  11, 
xix.  13,  21,  24;  Num.  xxii.  31).  Other 
passages  which  have  to  be  considered  are  Gen. 
xlviii.  16,  "the  angel  who  redeemed  (delivered) 


Notes  231 

me  from  all  evil,"  where  really  it  is  God 
who  is  meant;  Ex.  xxiii.  20-23,  "I  send  an 
angel  before  thee  .  .  .  my  name  is  in  him ; 
...  if  thou  obeyest  his  voice,  and  doest  all 
that  I  speak  ;  .  .  .  my  angel  shall  go  before 
thee ;  .  .  .  and  I  will  destroy  them "  (cp. 
xxxii.  34,  xxxiii.  2).  It  may  be  regarded  as 
in  the  highest  degree  probable  that  in  all  these 
passages  "messenger"  or  (in  Ex.  xxiii.  14, 
Mai.  iii.  1)  "my  messenger"  has  been  pro- 
duced by  a  late  editor  of  the  Old  Testament 
out  of  Michael  {i.e.  "  Who  is  like  God "  ?). 
It  was  Michael  who,  according  to  tradition, 
appeared  to  the  personages  of  the  prehistoric 
period,  and  especially  Michael^  who  delivered 
Yahw^'s  people  at  the  Exodus.  This  exalted 
Being  is  the  repository  of  the  Name  of  God 
(Ex.  xxiii.  21) ;  one  might  surely  say  that  he 
is  the  Name  of  God.  He  is  also  the  Face  of 
God  (just  as  Astart  or  Ashtoreth  is  called  the 

1  The  ''^captain  of  Yahw^'s  host"  (Josh.  v.  IS  ff.)  is 
presumably  He  who  was  afterwards  known  as  "  Michael 
the  chief  captain  "  (Slavonic  Enoch,  xxii.  6,  xxxiii.  10). 


232  Bible  Problems 

Face  of  Baal);  "my  Face"  in  Ex.  xxxiii.  14 
(cp.  15)  means  "my  angel,"  or  rather 
"Michael."  This  gives  us  the  key  to  the 
singular  phrase  "the  angel  of  his  Face"  in 
Isa.  Ixiii.  9.  The  phrase  might  mean  "the 
angel  who  has  admission  to  his  presence," 
and  so  it  was  probably  understood  in  later 
times  (Eth.  Enoch,  xl.  2  ff,,  and  the  passages 
quoted  from  the  Testaments  of  the  Twelve 
Patriarchs,  p.  225,  note  1).  But  this  does  not 
give  a  suitable  meaning.  The  original  mean- 
ing most  probably  was  "  Michael  his  Face  " ; 
"  Face "  and  "  Name "  are  both  archaic 
expressions  for  "manifestation  of  God." 
Similarly  in  Mai.  iii.  1,  "my  messenger" 
should  most  probably  be  "  Michael " ;  the 
words  "  the  messenger  of  the  covenant  whom 
ye  delight  in "  are,  judging  from  one's  ex- 
.  perience  elsewhere,  a  scribe's  interpolation. 
Again,  in  Ecclus.  xliii.  26,  where  the  Hebrew 
text  has  "angel,"  it  is  very  possible  that  the 
true  reading  is  "Michael."  That  Michael  is 
the  personage  who  is  meant  has  already  been 


Notes  233 

seen  by  Prof.  N.  Schmidt  in  the  Teviple  Bible 
{Ecclesiasticus,  p.  170),  but  my  own  experience 
of  types  of  corruption  leads  me  to  go  further. 
Nor  is  this  all.  In  Gen.  xxi.  30,  where  Jacob  is 
said  to  have  called  the  name  of  the  place  Peniel 
(Penuel),  it  is  difficult  not  to  see  one  of  the 
titles  of  this  great  Being  Michael,  which  was 
transferred  to  the  sacred  spot  where  he  ap- 
peared ;  and  the  traditional  name  of  the  numen 
of  Peniel  (as  I  hope  to  show  elsewhere)  was 
either  Michael  or  that  older  name  out  of 
which,  as  has  been  said  above,  the  edifying 
name  Michael  may  have  been  produced.  And 
lastly,  in  Rev.  xx.  1,  where  all  the  commen- 
tators have  been  puzzled  at  the  mention  of  an 
angel,  we  can  scarcely  doubt  that  6  ayyeXos  is 
a  translation  of  an  already  corrupt  text  of  an 
older  Hebrew  apocalypse,  in  which  maVak  was 
written  instead  of  mikaeL 

There  is  much  more  that  might  be  said  to 
show  the  need  that  exists  of  a  more  searching 
criticism,  and  the  sure  prospect  of  an  abundant 
recompense.      Many  questions   as   yet   unan- 


2  34  Bible  Problems 

swered  are,  I  am  sure,  capable  of  being 
answered.  What,  for  instance,  is  the  meaning 
of  BeUal  (BeUar),  of  Sammael,  of  Malchira 
(Ascens.  of  Isaiah,  i.  8)  ?  How  came  the 
warhke  Messiah  to  be  called  in  Rev.  xix.  13 
"the  Logos  of  God"?  What  made  Philo 
call  the  Logos  apxdyye^os  and  identify  him 
with  the  nin^  -jj^^d  ?  I  do  not  think  that  Bousset, 
Lueken,and  Charles — thorough  scholars  as  they 
are — have  seen  quite  all  that  may  already  be 
discerned.  And  even  the  least  of  the  problems 
which  centre  in  the  title  "  the  Son  of  Man  "  is 
worthy  of  the  keenest  scrutiny. 

On  the  questions  connected  with  the 
phrase  "  Son  of  man,"  apart  from  that  here 
raised  as  to  "Michael"  (on  which  it  suffices 
to  refer  to  Lueken's  monograph,  1898), 
see  Driver's  learned  article  "Son  of  Man " 
in  Hastings,  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  and 
especially  the  well-arranged  and  keenly  critical 
article  of  N.  Schmidt  in  the  Eiicyclopcedia 
JBiblica,  where  also  will  be  found  a  full  exposi- 
tion   and    examination   of  theories   proposed 


Notes  235 

by  other  scholars.  See  also  Baldensperger, 
Die  messianisch-apokalyptischen  Hoffnungen ; 
Charles,  The  Book  of  Enoch,  and  (when 
published)  The  Testaments  of  the  Twelve 
Patriarchs ;  Gunkel,  Das  vierte  Buch  Esra 
in  Kautzsch,  Die  Apokryphen  und  Pseudepi- 
graphen\  WoXz^Judische  Eschatologie  \  Bousset, 
Religion  des  Judenthums,  and  his  lecture, 
Die  Judische  Apokalyptik,  In  conclusion, 
note  Prof.  Bousset's  striking  words  (p.  59  of 
the  Lecture),  "  In  the  idea  of  the  Son  of 
Man  a  pre-existent  Christology,  as  it  were, 
lies  hidden.  The  house  is  ready.  The  faith 
in  Jesus  only  needed  to  enter  it." 

Note  V.,  to  p.  85. 

Fresh  evidence  is  here  offered  for  there  being 
a  mythic  substratum  to  Matt.  i.  18.  I  begin 
(a)  with  the  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  evidence 
(a)  with  regard  to  the  belief  in  divine  genera- 
tion. In  col.  1,  line  5,  of  the  Annals  of 
Ashurbanipal   the   birth   of  the  king  is  thus 


236  Bible  Problems 

spoken  of,  "  and  whom  they  (the  gods  Ashur 
and  Sin)  formed  in  the  midst  of  his  mother " 
{Keilinschriftliche  Bibliothek,  ii.  153 ;  cp.  Re- 
cords of  the  Past,  first  series,  i.  57).  Similarly 
it  is  said  with  reference  to  Nebuchadrezzar,  in 
the  India  House  Inscription  (col.  1,  lines  23  to 
25),  "  when  the  Lord  of  lords  made  me  Marduk, 
he  prepared  well  my  birth  in  the  mother  {ix, 
mother's  womb) " ;  see  Keilinschr.  BibL,  iii.  2, 
p.  11 ;  Records  of  the  Past,  first  series,  v.  113. 
(b)  As  to  the  belief  in  the  divine  sonship  of 
kings.  In  a  strongly  mythological  dialogue 
between  Ashurbanipal  and  the  god  Nebo  it 
is  said,  ''Small  wast  thou,  O  Ashurbanipal, 
when  I  committed  thee  to  the  goddess,  the 
queen  of  Nineveh ;  weak  wast  thou,  O 
Ashurbanipal,  when  thou  satest  upon  the  lap 
of  the  goddess,  the  queen  of  Nineveh.  Of 
two  of  the  four  breasts,"  etc.  Elsewhere  this 
king  appears  as  a  child  on  the  bosom  of  the 
mother-goddess,  Belit-Istar.^     See  also  Cheyne, 

1  For  both  passages  see  Zimmern,  K.A.T.,  3rd  ed.^  p. 
379  ;  cp.  A.  Jeremias^  Das  Alte  Testament  im  Lichte  des  Alien 


Notes  237 

Book  of  Psalms,  1st  ed.,  on  Ps.  ii.  7,  and  cp. 
his  Origin  of  the  Psalter,  pp.  130,  252. 

B.  Egyptian  evidence, — The  Egyptian  kings, 
as  M.  Maspero  assures  us,  were  viewed  real- 
istically as  "blood-relations  of  the  sun-god, 
some  through  their  father,  others  through 
their  mother,  directly  begotten  by  the  god." 
"Their  souls  as  well  as  their  bodies  have  a 
supernatural  origin ;  each  soul  being  a  double 
detached  from  Horus,  the  successor  of  Osiris, 
and  the  first  to  reign  alone  over  Egypt.  This 
divine  double  is  infused  into  the  royal  infant 
at  birth,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  ordinary 
double  is  incarnate  in  common  mortals.  ...  It 
awaked  to  full  self-consciousness  in  those  who 
ascended  the  throne  at  the  moment  of  their 
accession.  From  that  time  to  the  hour  of  their 
death,  and  beyond  it,  all  that  they  possessed  of 
ordinary  humanity  was  completely  effaced ; 
they  were  from  henceforth  only  the  sons  of  Ra. 

Orients,  p.  37.  Many  representations  of  Istar  suckling  a 
child  have  been  found  in  the  excavations^  both  at  Babylon 
and  elsewhere  (Zimmern,  p.  429,  note  5  ;  Jeremias,  p.  37, 
note  1). 


238  Bible  Problems 

Their  complex  nature  was  revealed  at  the  outset 
in  the  form  and  arrangement  of  their  names  " 
(Maspero,  Dawn  of  Civilization,  p.  259). 

This  is  of  special  importance  as  showing 
how  ancient  Orientals  would  naturally  under- 
stand the  phrase  "  Son  of  God  "  as  applied  to 
a  greater  than  any  historical  king.  There  was 
a  divine  element  in  the  human  nature  of  an 
Egyptian  king,  but  it  only  became  self- 
conscious  at  the  moment  of  the  king's  accession. 
Another  symboUc  representation  is  equally 
instructive.  The  Egyptian  king  was  potenti- 
ally a  son  of  God  as  soon  as  born,  but  actually 
he  became  such  as  soon  as  he  ascended  the 
throne.  We  should  most  naturally  say  that 
the  king's  accession  synchronized  with  his 
adoption  to  be  a  son  of  God   (cp.  Ps.  ii.  7,^ 

^  I  fear  that  the  text  of  this  passage  is  open  to  criticism 
(see  my  Book  of  Psalms ,  1904,  pp.  6,  7,  crit.  and  exeg. 
notes).  But  the  received  text  may  represent  one  of  the 
views  cmTent  respecting  the  Messiah  in  the  later  period, 
viz.  that  he  became  the  ^^  son  of  God"  on  his  assumption 
of  the  regal  office.  Note  the  earlier  form  of  Luke  iii. 
226,  referred  to  at  another  point,  and  cp.  N.  Schmidt, 
Enc.  Biblica,  "Son  of  God,"  §  6. 


Notes  239 

"  Thou  art  my  son ;  this  day  have  I  begotten 
thee  ").  And  this  was  no  doubt  one  of  the 
ideas  current  in  Egypt  on  this  subject.  Hear 
Maspero  again.  "From  the  moment  that 
the  Pharaoh  became  god  upon  earth,  the 
gods  of  heaven,  his  fathers  or  his  brothers, 
and  the  goddesses,  recognized  him  as  their 
son,  and,  according  to  the  ceremonial  imposed 
by  custom  in  such  cases,  consecrated  his 
adoption  by  offering  him  the  breast  to  suck, 
as  they  would  have  done  to  their  own  child  " 
{ibid,,  p.  263). 

Still  further  light  on  the  materialistic 
theology  of  Egypt  and  the  East  comes  from 
the  temple  at  Luxor,  with  its  very  singular 
sculptures  representing  the  accouchement  of 
the  mother  of  Amen-hotep  III.,  and  two  royal 
children,  who  are  presented  to  the  great 
Theban  god  Amen,  nursed  by  another  deity. 
More  commonly  noticed  by  travellers  is  the 
representation  on  the  wall  of  the  sanctuary 
of  the  great  temple  of  Isis  at  Philge,  of 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus  suckled  by  the  goddess. 


240  Bible  Problems 

The  Ptolemies,  as  successors  of  the  Egyptian 
kings,  assumed  such  titles  as  "son  of  the 
sun"  and  "son  of  Isis  and  Osiris."  The 
violence  done  to  fact  in  the  representation 
of  Alexander  as  a  son  of  the  god  Ammon 
is  referred  to  elsewhere.  So  deeply  rooted 
in  the  East  was  the  belief  in  the  divine  origin 
of  kings.  The  notion  of  kingly  "glory" 
{kareno)  in  the  Zendavesta  is  also  closely 
connected  with  the  belief  in  the  divinity  of 
kings.  All  this  has  a  direct  bearing  on  the 
spread  of  the  imperial  cultus  in  the  east  of 
the  Roman  Empire,  which  is  in  veiled 
language  so  prominently  referred  to  in  the 
Johannine  Apocalypse. 

Note  VI.,  to  p.  77. 

That  the  grandly  attired  "woman"  is  the 
mother  of  the  Messiah,  according  to  the 
intention  of  the  Jewish  narrator,  is  clear. 
It  is,  however,  intelligible  enough  that  such 
a  picture  did  not  please   everyone,  especially 


Notes  241 

after  the  true  meaning  of  the  original  story- 
had  faded  away.  Of  this,  the  narrative  in 
Matt.  i.  18-23  seems  to  be  a  proof.  Nor 
is  other  evidence  wanting.  Bousset  {Offen- 
barung,  p.  413)  points  out  that  the  "  virgin  " 
was  by  some  taken  to  be  the  Ecclesia  (ep.  "  the 
virgin-daughter  Zion,"  2  Kings  xix.  31,  Lam.  ii. 
13).  See  e,g.  the  fourth  vision  of  the  Shepherd 
of  Her  mas,  where  the  Ecclesia  appears  as  a 
virgin  beside  the  dragon ;  it  should  be  added 
that,  although  the  work  of  a  Christian,  the 
Shepherd  may  be  taken  as  a  repository  of 
Jewish  notions  and  ideas.  Abbott  too  {Enc, 
Bib,,  "  Gospels,"  §  21)  refers  to  a  very  early 
letter  from  the  local  church  of  Lyons  given 
by  Eusebius  {Hist,  JEccles,,  v.  1,  45),  where 
the  "Virgin  Mother"  signifies  the  Church. 
It  is  noteworthy  that  Hermas,  though  he 
speaks  of  the  dragon,  says  nothing  of  the 
Christ;  the  conqueror  of  the  dragon,  as 
Bousset  remarks,  is  the  virgin.  Among  other 
instances  of  the  use  of  wapOevos,  "  virgin,"  for 

"the  Ecclesia,"  Abbott  quotes  the  statement 

16 


242  Bible  Problems 

of  Abercius  (about  190  a.d.)  that  "the  pure 
Virgin  grasped  the  Fish"  {i.e,  Christ),  and 
a  passage  in  the  Epistle  to  Diognetus 
{ad  Jin,),    ovSe    ESa    (ftOeiperai    dXKa    irapOevo^ 

Naturally,  too,  the  conception  of  the  Virgin- 
mother  of  Christ  as  a  purely  superhuman 
being  found  a  home  in  a  heretical  sect,  such 
as  that  which  Epiphanius  {Hcer,,  79)  de- 
nounces, and  whose  priestesses,  he  tells  us, 
offered  cakes  to  the  Virgin,  whence  their 
name  Collyridians  (from  KoWvpis,  a  cake). 
Here  we  cannot  fail  to  discern  the  fusion 
of  the  Mother  of  Christ  with  some  form  of 
the  Asiatic  Mother-goddess.  For  obviously 
the  cakes  spoken  of  are  precisely  analogous 
to  the  cakes  offered  both  in  Babylonia  and 
(see  Jer.  vii.  18)  in  Judah  to  the  "  Queen  of 
Heaven."  Later  on,  however,  the  leading 
Church  authorities  seem  to  have  considered 
that  the  conception  of  Mary  as  being  in  one 
aspect  superhuman,  embodied  in  Rev.  xii.  1, 
had   a   claim    to    some    distinct    recognition. 


Notes  243 

The  data  of  the  Apocalypse  and  of  the  First 
Gospel  were  therefore  combined,  and  a  new 
conception  of  Mary  became  widely  prevalent. 
Lovers  of  Christian  art  will  at  once  realize 
this,  and  will  recall  the  pictures  of  the 
Madonna  di  Misericordia  and  those  old 
mosaics  and  paintings  in  which  the  Virgin 
(how  unlike  the  mater  speciosa  of  Jacopone's 
hymn !)  is  placed  beside  Christ,  on  an  equality 
with  Him,  and  often  in  an  attitude  of  de- 
precation.^ In  this  position  of  gracious 
patroness  and  protectress  the  glorified  Virgin 
is  not  without  a  slight  but  real  resemblance  to 
the  idealized  goddess  Istar,  who  was  perhaps 
originally  conceived  of  as  a  virgin.^  For  must 
we  not  be  fair  even  to  the  heathen  ?  And 
who  could  wish  to  speak  lightly  of  the  "  com- 
passionate mother  of  men,"  ^  upon  whom  were 
poured  out  by  the  Babylonians  such  treasures 
of  love  and  gratitude  ?     It  is  also  surely  not 

1  Mrs  Jameson_,  Legends  of  the  Madonna. 

2  See  Zimmem,  K.A.T.,  3rd  ed.,  ii.  424,  432,  cp.  429- 

3  Cp.  Sayce,    Hihhert   Lectures    on    Babylonian    Beligion 
(1887)  ;  Jastrow,  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria  (1898). 


244  Bible  Problems 

out  of  place  to  recall  that  Eshmunazar,  king 
of  Sidon,  built  a  temple  to  Astart  ( Ashtoreth) 
as  the  "  name  of  Baal,"  ie,  probably  as  mani- 
festing the  softer  and  more  gracious  aspect  of 
the  divine  nature.  As  Dr  Paton  very  truly 
remarks,  "Astart  of  Canaan  has  the  closest 
affinity  with  the  goddess  Istar  of  Babylonia."^ 

Note  VII.,  to  p.  91. 

That  Luke  i.  34  /.  is  a  later  insertion, 
is  shown  with  much  probability  by  Prof. 
Schmiedel,  in  the  course  of  his  elaborate 
treatment  of  the  position  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment writers,  Enc,  Biblica,  "  Mary,  Mother 
of  Jesus,"  cols.  2952  -  2969 ;  cp.  Usener, 
"Nativity,"  §  16,  col.  3349.  Prof.  Gunkel,  how- 
ever {Zum  religionsgeschichtlichen  Verstdndniss 
des  N.T,,  pp.  67/.),  denies  that  Luke  i.  34/. 
interrupts  the  context.  "Turn  the  words 
back  into  Hebrew,  and  they  give  a  good  con- 
nexion."    Gunkel  also  remarks  that  the  nar- 

1  Si/ria  and  Palestine  (1902),  p.  51. 


Notes  245 

rator  in  Luke  i.  does  not  mention  the  concep- 
tion of  Mary,  perhaps  because  he  reverently 
conceals  the  special  miracle  in  the  birth  of 
Jesus.  This  scholar's  arguments,  however, 
seem  less  convincing  than  those  of  Schmiedel. 
Dr  A.  Wright  {Synopsis  of  the  Gospels  in 
Greek,  2nd  ed.,  1903,  Introd.,  p.  xUi.)  may 
also  be  consulted.  He  thinks  it  evident 
"that  the  doctrine  (?)  of  the  Virgin-birth 
was  not  generally  revealed  in  the  early  part 
of  the  apostolic  age." 

Note  VIIT.,  to  p.  92. 

The  explanation  of  the  story  of  the  Virgin- 
birth  as  connected  ultimately  with  the  myth 
of  the  Queen  of  Heaven,  the  Mother  of  the 
Conqueror  of  the  mythic  dragon,  suggests  the 
true  origin  of  the  narratives  of  the  Magi  and 
of  the  massacre  of  the  Innocents.  Both,  from 
our  present  point  of  view,  are,  not  history, 
but  pious  transformations  of  current  mythic 
stories.      Prof.  Dieterich   {Zeitschrift  fur  die 


2^6  Bible  Problems 

NeutestamentL  Wissenschaft,  iii.  1  ff,)  takes 
a  diiFerent  line.  He  supposes  that  there  is  a 
historical  substratum  to  the  popular  story  of 
the  journey  of  the  Magi  in  Matt.  ii.  1-12,  viz. 
the  journey  of  the  Armenian  king  Tiridates 
to  Rome,  accompanied  by  Magi,  in  the  time 
of  the  emperor  Nero.  Tiridates,  himself  a 
Magian,  is  said  to  have  initiated  Nero  into  the 
"  magic  repasts  "  {Le,  the  Mithraic  mysteries), 
and  bending  his  knee,  and  lifting  his  hands, 
called  him  Lord  (Seo-Trdrr/s),  and  worshipped 
him  (Plin.,  Hist,  JVat,  xxx.  16  ;  Dio  Cassius, 
xxxii.  If,,  cp.  xliii.  5).  Usener  {JE71C,  Biblica, 
"  Nativity,"  §  18)  accepts  this  theory,  which 
Pfleiderer  {Das  Christusbild,  p.  101,  note  1) 
also  finds  "attractive."  Usener  also  thinks 
that  "  tidings  of  the  Neronic  persecutions 
spread  from  Rome  may  have  had  their  share 
in  bringing  about  the  introduction  of  the 
picture  of  a  bloodthirsty  tyrant  into  the 
story  of  the  Childhood."  He  adds  that  "a 
massacre  of  innocents,  and,  as  the  motive  for 
it,  alarm   at  the  threatened  advent  of  a  new 


Notes  247 

ruler,  were  already  current  material  for  legend, 
as  is  shown  by  the  romantic  story  of  Marathus 
concerning  the  birth  of  Augustus  (Suetonius, 
Aug.,  94)."  I  do  not  know  whether  any  of 
the  conservative  theological  reviewers  of  the 
Encyclopcedia  Biblica  have  brought  argu- 
ments against  these  theories.  My  own  objec- 
tions arise  from  a  difference  of  method.  With 
Gunkel,  I  am  of  opinion  that  in  accounting 
for  popular  Messianic  stories  we  ought,  in  the 
first  instance,  to  try  a  mythological  solution, 
which  is  less  likely  to  be  wrong  than  a  solution 
suggested  by  some  apparent  resemblance  of 
reported  historical  facts.  I  refrain,  therefore, 
from  supposing  a  connexion  between  the  story 
of  the  Magi  and  the  reported  journey  of  Tiri- 
dates.  The  offering  of  worship  or  homage 
by  wise  men  from  the  East  (the  home  of 
"wisdom,"  1  Kings  v.  30)  to  the  wise  God 
(cp.  the  wise  God  Marduk  an^ong  the  Baby- 
lonians), manifested  as  a  human  child,  was  a 
necessary  part  of  the  pre-Christian  "  interna- 
tional "  myth  of  the  Redeemer  to  which  I  have 


248  Bible  Problems 

referred,  that  "  in  all  things  he  himself  might 
have  the  pre-eminence."      Similarly,  too,  the 
important  detail  of  the  guiding  star  (cp.  Enc, 
Biblica,  "  Stars,"  §  5)  is  not  to  be  connected,  as 
by  Soltau  {The  Birth  of  Jesus  Christ,  p.  38), 
with  portents  seen  in  the  skies  on  the  birth 
of  Augustus,  the  future  "  lord  of  the  world  " 
(Suetonius,  Aug,,  94),  much  less  with  Num. 
xxiv.  17,  but  with  a  form  of  the  Birth-story 
which  spoke   of  the   Mother   of  Christ   as   a 
supernatural   Being   who   had   a   mystic  con- 
nexion  with  the  stars  (Rev.  xii.  1),  or   with 
some  special  star  (see  the  reference  at  the  end 
of  section  C,  in  Note  ii.). 

With  regard  to  the  story  of  the  massacre 
of  the  Innocents — historically  a  most  impro- 
bable tradition,  however  religiously  edifying 
in  the  hands  of  preachers  and  poets — all  that 
we  can  grant  to  the  non-mythologists  is  that 
tidings  of  the  Neronian  persecution  may  per- 
haps have  increased  the  interest  of  some  of 
the  Christians  in  that  story.  The  cruel  king 
Herod  may  in  fact  have  seemed  an  anticipa- 


Notes  249 

tion  of  the  cruel  emperor  Nero.     But  is  not 
all   this   going   very   much   out  of  our  way? 
Herod's    cruelty,     exaggerated     by    popular 
hatred,   became   proverbial.      It  was   natural, 
therefore,  that  he  should  be  substituted  in  that 
pious  Haggadah  of  which  I  have  spoken  for 
the  mythic  dragon.      The   massacre  itself  is 
clearly  analogous    to    the    drowning  of   the 
Hebrew   children    by  order  of   the    king  of 
Misrim  (Ex.  i.    22) ;   the   careful   reader   will 
remember  that  the  king  of  Misrim  {Le,  the 
king  whoever  he  may  be  at  any  time)  is  identi- 
fied by  Ezekiel  (xxix.  3)  with  the  great  dragon 
of  the  cosmogonic  tradition  (see  Enc.  Biblica, 
"Dragon,"   §§   1,   4).      There  is  also  a  more 
distant  connexion  with  the  mjrthic  ravaging 
of  "  cities  "  and  "  men  "  by  the  monster  called 
labbu  (lion),  ix,  Tiamat  the  lion-headed.     Cp. 
Zimmern,  ICA.T.,  3rd  ed.,  p.  498;  Gunkel, 
Schopfung,  pp.  28,  418  ;  and  on  the  other  side, 
the   popular   but   competent   booklet   of   W. 
Soltau,  translated  by  M.  Canney,  The  Birth  of 
Jesus  Christ  (London :  A.  &  C.  Black,  1903). 


250  Bible  Problems 

Note  IX.,  to  p.  104. 

The  plural  (fathers),  with  reference  to  the 
mission  of  the  divine  hero  Hibil-Ziwa,  is 
surprising.  We  also  find  Hibil-Ziwa  spoken 
of  as  "  his  son,  w^ho  is  his  brother  "  {i,e.  Manda 
d'Hayyes).  The  two  are  brothers  as  belonging 
to  the  same  category.  The  elder  brothers  {i.e. 
the  beings  of  the  same  category  who  were 
called  into  existence  earlier)  are  reckoned  as 
"fathers"  of  the  younger  (Brandt,  Mand. 
Religion,  p.  139,  note  2).  Such  mythology 
can  hardly  have  left  any  trace  in  the  Bible, 
unless  Gunkel  is  right  in  finding  one  in  Rev. 
xii.  17  (see  his  Schopfung,  p.  382).  The 
rule  is  that  Christ  is  represented  as  having  only 
adopted  brethren,  and  but  one  Father,  the 
God  of  gods,  by  whom  He  is  sent,  not  indeed 
into  Hades  but  into  the  world  of  living  men 
(Rev.  viii.  31,  Gal.  iv.  4,  John  iv.  34,  etc.). 
This  agrees  with  the  common  Babylonian 
representation  of  Marduk  as  sent  by  his  divine 
father   Ea   to   help   mankind    (cp.    Zimmern, 


Notes  251 

K.A.T,,  3rd  ed.,  p.  172).  There  are  passages, 
however,  in  the  Babylonian  epic  of  Creation, 
(Tablets  iii.  and  iv.)  where  this  same  god 
is  spoken  of  as  having  the  older  gods  as 
his  fathers.  The  expression  is  therefore  a 
genuine  part  of  the  mythic  story  of  the 
Redeemer.  It  should  be  noticed  that  Hibil- 
Ziwa  corresponds  to  the  god  Marduk  in  the 
Babylonian  myth,  just  as  Krun,  the  "  firstborn 
king  of  darkness"  in  the  Mandeean  myth, 
corresponds  to  Tiamat  in  the  Babylonian 
(Brandt,  Mand,  Sckr.,  p.  150,  note  3 ;  cp. 
Gunkel,  Sckopf.,  p.  364,  note  2). 

Note  X.,  to  p.  101. 

The  explanation  of  the  sign  of  the  prophet 
Jonah  given  in  Matt.  xii.  40  is  wanting  in  the 
parallel  passage  in  Luke,  where  this  substitute 
is  given,  "  For  as  Jonas  became  a  sign  to  the 
Ninevites,  so  shall  also  the  Son  of  man  be  to 
this  generation  "  (Luke  xi.  30).  This  suggests 
the  most  probable  transition  to  Matt.  xii.  41, 


252  Bible  Problems 

"  The  men  of  Nineveh  shall  appear  as  accusers 
to  this  generation,  and  shall  prove  it  guilty." 

The  "  sign "  is  really  the  reverse  of  a  sign. 
How  indeed  could  it  be  otherwise,  when  Jesus 
distinctly  refused  to  work  "signs"  (cp.  Mk. 
viii.  12)  ?  Nor  could  the  deliverance  of  Jonah 
from  the  sea-monster's  belly  have  been  repre- 
sented by  the  original  writer  as  a  sign  to  the 
Ninevites,  for  neither  did  they  see  it,  nor,  so 
far  as  the  story  goes,  were  they  told  of  it  (see 
Enc,  Biblica,  "Gospels,"  §140  b;  "Jonah," 
§  8).  It  is  strange  that  Wellhausen,  in  his 
recent  translation  of  Matthew  with  notes 
(1904),  should  prefer  the  explanation  in  Matt, 
xii.  40  to  that  in  Luke  xi.  30.  Still  as  an 
early  Christian  statement,  quite  apart  from  its 
setting,  the  passage  here  commented  upon  has 
its  value. 

Note  XI.,  to  pp.  113,  128. 

A.  The  death  of  Christ  "  for  our  sins  "  was 
necessary  "  according  to  the  Scriptures,"  says 
St   Paul   (1    Cor.   xv.   3 ;  cp.  v,  4  and  Matt. 


Notes  253 

xxvi.  54  and  56),     Here  there  may  be  a  refer- 
ence to  some  widely  received  writings,  not  in 
our  Canon.     In  2  Esdras  vii.  29  the  death  of 
"  my  son,  the  Christ "  is  spoken  of ;  the  con- 
text gives  no  reason  for  supposing  a  Christian 
interpolation.     Some  eariier  work   may  have 
contained   a  similar  statement.     At  any  rate 
we  are  safe  in  supposing  that  St  Paul  had  in 
his  mind  Isa.  liii.  5, 7,  9,  and  Zech.  xii.  10,  the 
original  meaning  of  which  passages  does  not 
concern  us  here.     But  he  would  hardly  have 
given  such  an  interpretation  to  these  passages, 
if  there  had  not  been  some  widely,  though  not 
universally,  current  belief  on   the   subject  of 
the  death  of  the  world's  Redeemer,  and  this 
belief   is   most  easily   accounted    for  as   the 
outcome  of  a  semi-mythic  Oriental  tradition. 
That  the  death  of  the  solar  deity  Marduk  was 
spoken  of,  and  his  grave  shown,  in  Babylonia, 
is  an  ascertained  fact  (Zimmern,  K,A,T.,  3rd 
ed.,  p.  371) ;  the  death  of  Osiris  and  of  other 
gods  was  an  Egyptian  belief  (Maspero,  Dawn 
of  Civilization),  and,  though   a   more  distant 


2  54  Bible  Problems 

parallel,  one  may  here  refer  also  to  the 
empty  grave  of  Zeus  pointed  out  in 
Crete. 

B.  The  Scriptures  referring  to  the  Resurrec- 
tion may  well  have  included  Hos.  vi.  2, 
itself  too  perhaps  influenced  phraseologically 
by  a  floating  mythic  story.  But  surely  St 
Paul  also  had  in  his  mind  some  later  Jewish 
writing  which  referred  to  the  resurrection  of 
the  Messiah.  Jonah  i.  17  would  certainly  not 
justify  St  Paul's  expression,  "on  the  third 
day." 

Note  XII.,  to  p.  140. 

The  Hebrew  text  of  Ecclesiasticus  now 
printed  amounts  to  about  two-thirds  of  the 
whole  book.  We  must  not,  however,  exag- 
gerate the  boon,  for  the  problems  of  the  text 
will  occupy  scholars  for  generations  to  come. 
I  may  remark  here  that  caution  should  be 
used  in  arguing  from  the  apparent  parallelisms 
between  passages  of  Ecclesiasticus  and  pas- 
sages    in     our     Psalms.      For    instance,   the 


Notes  255 

parallelism  between  Ecclus.  xxxvi.  6  f,  and 
Ps.  Ixxiv.  loy!,  13,  might  be  held  to  exclude  a 
Maccabean  date  for  Ps.  Ixxiv.  But,  as  Prof. 
N.  Schmidt  has  pointed  out  {Ecclesiasticus  in 
the  Temple  Bible,  Introd.,  p.  xxvi.),  Ecclus. 
xxxvi.  1-17  is  manifestly  an  interpolation, 
which  "  voices  the  feelings  of  a  people  sorely 
oppressed  by  a  foreign  enemy."  Dr  Schmidt 
supposes  the  Syrian  oppression  to  be  that 
referred  to.  Israel  Levy  however  remarks 
that  though  one  might  for  a  Uttle  while 
suppose  the  prayer  to  be  of  the  time  of 
Antiochus  Epiphanes,  the  reference  may  be 
to  any  other  critical  period  of  Jewish  history 
{L'Ecclesiastique,  ii.  169).  Such  arguments 
as  that  here  referred  to  are  of  secondary 
importance.  On  Ps.  Ixxiv.  see  my  Book  of 
Psalms  (1904),  i.  326^. 

Note  XIII.,  to  p.  145. 

It  is  only  a  brief  sketch  of  Prof.  Winckler's 
views  upon  the  prophets  that   can  be   given 


256  Bible  Problems 

here.  So  much,  however,  must  be  given 
because  this  scholar  has  at  his  command  a 
large  number  of  new  Assyriological  facts,  and 
even  if  his  explanation  of  the  facts  be  in- 
adequate, it  must  not  be  ignored.  For  my 
own  part,  I  think  that,  owing  to  that  deficient 
interest  in  religion  of  which  I  have  spoken, 
Prof.  Winckler  practically  leaves  out  of  sight 
a  number  of  old  but  important  facts,  con- 
tained in  at  any  rate  the  most  representative 
Hebrew  prophecies.  He  is  of  opinion  that 
the  priests  of  the  sanctuary  on  Mount  Sinai, 
where  a  god  called  Jahu  ( Yahu)  was  worshipped, 
had,  like  priests  at  other  sanctuaries,  speculated 
on  the  divine  nature,  and  developed  a  high 
doctrine  of  the  divine  Lord  of  all  life,  whom, 
by  a  modification  of  Jahu,  they  called  Jahwe 
(Yahw^).  This  doctrine  was  accepted  by  the 
neighbouring  clans,  whom  David  had  formed 
into  the  tribe  and  kingdom  of  Judah,  and 
was  imposed  by  this  successful  adventurer — a 
native  of  the  southern  border-land — upon  the 
older  tribes    of    Israel  whom   he   conquered, 


Notes  257 

as  the  national  religion.  The  same  refined 
religious  view  was  held  by  the  prophets, 
— nebiim,  i.e.  "announcers," — a  class  of  men 
known  in  Assyria  as  well  as  in  the  land  of 
Israel.  These  "were  clear-sighted,  educated 
men,  who  were  superior  to  the  people,"  and 
whose  action  was  partly  at  any  rate  political. 
They  were  not  always  on  the  same  side. 
When  the  kings  oppressed  the  people,  the 
prophets  opposed  them,  and  when  the  priests 
became  the  ruUng  class,  dictating  the  policy 
of  the  king,  and  in  their  own  interest  en- 
couraged Baal- worship  and  fleeced  the  people, 
the  prophets  were  against  the  priests.  One 
of  them  (Amos)  even  became  a  political 
agitator,  for  he  adopted  the  political  idea  of 
a  restored  kingdom  of  David  (the  pan-Israelite 
idea),  and  advocated  it  in  Northern  Israel, 
while  at  a  later  time,  as  Winckler  reads 
history,  Jeremiah  became  a  decided  adherent 
of  the  Chaldean  party. 

All  this  is  far  from  satisfactory  to  those  who 

live  in  intellectual  intercourse  with  the  great 

17 


258  Bible  Problems 

Hebrew  prophets.  We  will  not  deny  the 
possibility  that  the  development  of  the  higher 
conception  of  Yahwe  may  owe  much  to 
priests  of  whose  activity  no  record  has  re- 
mained, and  we  must  heartily  agree  that  this 
higher  conception  was  taken  up  by  the 
Israelitish  prophets — in  fact,  such  a  theory 
best  accounts  for  a  considerable  number  of 
exegetical  facts.  But  when  we  look  into 
the  evidence  offered  by  Winckler  for  the 
existence  of  Assyrian  "prophets,"  we  find 
that  the  "prophecy"  quoted  (by  Peiser  the 
Assyriologist)  expresses  the  utmost  servility 
towards  the  king,  upon  whom  evidently  his 
future  depends.  In  fact,  the  speaker  of  the 
prophecy  appears  to  be — as  Konig  well  points 
out^ — just  such  a  prophet  as  those  described 
in  1  Kings  xxii.  6,  who  said  to  Ahab  (doubt- 
less for  a  fee),  "Go  up,  for  the  Lord  shall 
deliver  it  into  the  hand  of  the  king."     From 

1  Die  Babel  -  Bibel  -  Frage  und  die  ivissejischaftliche 
Methode  (1904)_,  p.  17.  Konig  also  gives  the  prophecy  in 
full  from  Peiser,  Mitteilungen  der  vorderasiatischen  Gesell- 
schaft  (189S),  p.  257. 


Notes  259 

such  prophets  Isaiah  (xxviii.  7),  Micah  (iii.  5, 
11),  and  Jeremiah  (xxiii.  14^,  xxviii.  1  ^, 
xxix.  8)  distinguish  themselves  with  no 
hesitating  voice.  Amos,  too,  expressly  tells 
us  that  he  was  no  professional  prophet 
(vii.  14). 

To  the  objection  that  in  his  earlier  statements 
he  represented  the  greater  Hebrew  prophets 
too  much  as  mere  men  of  their  age,  Winckler 
now  replies  that  from  the  point  of  view  of 
secular  history  even  an  Isaiah  is  and  must  be 
a  man  of  his  age.  "  History  has  to  explain 
the  man  from  his  age,  and  not  from  his 
significance  for  eternity."  But  should  not  a 
historian  confess  that  there  are  phenomena  in 
some  lives  which  simply  by  the  study  of 
historical  circumstances  he  is  powerless  to 
explain  ?  If  Winckler  had  admitted  this,  his 
attempted  explanation  would  perhaps  have 
had  more  force.  The  greater  prophets  of 
Israel  were  neither  mere  thinkers  who  sought 
to  popularize  their  religious  theory,  nor 
political  agitators   or  pamphleteers,  nor  even 


260  Bible  Problems 

popular  tribunes ;  they  were  enthusiasts  filled 
with  a  passion  for  Yahwe.^ 

For  Winckler's  views,  see  passages  in  his 
monograph  on  Ancient  Western  Asia  in 
Helmolt's  Weltgeschichte,  vol.  iii.  (1901),  pp. 
204-206,  210-212,  and  in  his  Geschichte 
Israels,  vol.  i.,  pp.  37-42,  supplemented  by 
Abraham  als  Babylonier,  Joseph  als  Aegypter, 
pp.  35-38.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  Kohler 
and  Peiser  in  their  joint  work,  Hammurabi  s 
Gesetze,  i.  (1904),  p.  142,  take  a  view  which 
most  will  consider  sounder  than  that  of 
Winckler. 

Note  XIV.,  to  p.  148. 

Can  the  name  Amraphel  really  come  from 
Hammurabi  in  spite  of  the  troublesome  final 
(^)/?  Prof.  Hommel  {Z)ie  altorientalischen 
jr>enkmdler  und  das  A,T.,  1893,  p.  59)  still 
thinks  this  possible.  He  holds  that  the 
Hebrew  writer   used   a   cuneiform   record,  in 

1  See  "Babylon  and  the  Bible,'"'  Hihhert  Journal,  Oct. 
1903,  pp.  65  J^  (section  on  Winckler). 


Notes  261 

which  the  form  of  the  name  was  Ammu- 
DAGAL,  i,e,  Ammu-rahbi  (explained  "  the  Uncle 
is  my  breadth"),  and  that  the  translator,  instead 
of  rahab,  took  the  synonym  raphal,  and  all 
the  more  readily  because  there  was  a  Hebrew 
personal  name  pa(j)ak  (Sept.,  1  Chr.  iii.  21 ; 
var.  pacjiaua).  It  so  happens  that  both 
Rephael,  the  form  which  cod.  B  of  the  Sept. 
of  1  Chr.  Lc\  seems  to  presuppose,  equally 
with  Rephaiah  (the  Massoretic  reading),  are 
expansions  of  the  ethnic  designation  Kapha 
(whence  the  well-known  Rephaim).  This 
may  put  the  well-informed  reader  on  a  better 
track  than  Prof.  Hommel's.  Cp.  Critica 
Biblica  on  2  K.  xv.  19  (Pul,  king  of  Asshur). 
In  the  text  of  the  Lecture  sufficient  reason,  I 
hope,  has  been  given  for  urging  at  any  rate 
suspense  of  judgment  relative  to  the  historical 
character  of  the  Chedorlaomer  episode,  and  for 
hesitating  to  follow  M.  Loisy,  when  he  says 
that,  "  in  spite  of  some  critics,  this  episode  is  a 
sufficiently  good  certificate  of  personal  exist- 
ence for  the  Father  of  the  Faithful "  {Etudes 


262  Bible  Problems 

bibliques,  3rd  ed.,  1903,  p.  176).  I  may  here 
quote  from  Dr  Driver  {Genesis,  Introd.,  pp. 
xlix.  /!) :  "  They  (the  monuments)  thus  fall  far 
short  of  demonstrating  its  historical  character ; 
and  still  less  do  they  demonstrate  that  the  role 
attributed  to  Abraham  in  the  same  chapter  is 
historical."  I  am  of  course  only  concerned 
here  with  the  bearing  of  archaeological  facts, 
which  some  have  wrongly  supposed  to  prove 
the  historical  character  of  Gen.  xiv.,  and  which 
even  M.  Loisy,  so  keen  a  New  Testament 
critic,  does  not  seem  to  have  adequately 
considered. 

Note  XV.,  to  p.  182. 

It  is  a  venial  error,  and  yet  a  hindrance  to 
progress,  that  the  Authorized  Version  of  the 
Old  Testament  generally  gives  "Assyria," 
where  the  Hebrew  text  has  "Asshur."  For 
"  Asshur,"  as  pointed  out  in  the  Lecture,  has 
two  possible  meanings,  viz.  (1)  Assyria  (which 
most  probably  the  latest  scribes  and  editors 
supposed    to    be    the   meaning   of  the   word 


Notes  263 

everywhere),  and  (2)  a  region,  sometimes  of 
larger,  sometimes  of  smaller  extent,  in  N. 
Arabia,  adjoining  the  land  of  Misrim  or  Musri. 
The  first  scholar  to  suggest  the  second 
meaning,  as  possible  in  some  passages,  was 
Hommel,^  who  in  these  cases  identifies  the 
Hebrew  Asshur  with  the  Ashur  mentioned, 
together  with  Musr,  in  an  Arabian  inscription 
in  the  Minsean  dialect,  which,  in  agreement 
with  Glaser,  he  refers  to  the  ancient  Mingean 
empire  ("before  1000  B.C.,"  Hommel).  In- 
stead, however,  of  following  this  scholar,  who 
is  hardly  critical  enough,  I  have  gone  my  own 
way  in  applying  Glaser's  discovery  of  a  N. 
Arabian  Ashur  to  the  purposes  of  Old  Testa- 
ment criticism,  tt  is  almost  beyond  reason- 
able doubt  that  not  only  Asshur  but  Ashhur 
often  occurs  in  passages  where  a  corruption 
which  is  not  altogether  without  method  con- 
ceals it  from  unpractised  eyes.     Fortunately, 

1  According  to  this  scholar,  the  southern  Asshur  ex- 
tended from  the  Wady  el-Arish  to  the  region  of  Beersheba 
and  Hebron  (^Ancient  Hebrew  Tradition^  1897,  p.  244). 


264  Bible  Problems 

however,  there  is  still  one  phrase  (1  Chr.  ii. 
24,  iv.  5)  in  the  received  text  in  which 
Ashhur  still  exists  ;  "  Ashhur  (not  Ashur,  as 
the  Auth.  Version  has),  the  father  of  Tekoa  " 
are  the  words.  Tekoa  here  is  not  very 
essential;  it  is  important,  however,  that  the 
Septuagint  preserves  traces  of  another  read- 
ing, "  Caleb  went  in  to  Ephratah,  wife  of 
Hezron  his  father,  and  she  bore  him  Ashhur." 
Now  Caleb  and  Ephratah  are  both,  most 
probably,  N.  Arabian  names.  In  t;.  19  the 
same  tradition  occurs  in  another  form,  "  Caleb 
took  to  him  Ephrath,  who  bore  him  Hur " ; 
in  fact  Hur,  like  the  Egpytian  form  Haru  (p. 
153,  note  6),  is  a  mutilated  form  of  Ashhur. 

There  are  some  passages  in  which  the  N. 
Arabian  situation  of  Asshur  is  too  plain  to  be 
mistaken.  For  instance  (a,  b)  in  Genesis  xxv. 
3,  18.  In  the  former  passage  "  Asshurim  "  is  a 
son  of  Dedan.  In  the  latter  we  read,  "  And 
they  dwelt  from  Havilah  unto  Shur,  which  is 
eastward  of  Misrim  (of  course  not  Misraim, 
"Egypt"),  in  the  direction  of  Asshur."     The 


Notes  265 

most  various  conjectures  have  been  hazarded 
to  account  for  the  troublesome  Asshur;  but 
now  we  can  venture  to  say  that  the  riddle  is 
solved.  Shur  too  is  doubtless  a  mutilated 
form  of  the  same  name/  Cp.  Gen.  xvi.  61, 
XX.  1,  and  other  passages. 

(c)  Gen.  ii.  14,  "  Hiddekel ;  that  is  it  which 
goeth  towards  the  east  of  Assyria."  So  at 
least  Auth.  Version  renders,  but  the  Hebrew 
has  "Asshur."  The  mention  of  Havilah  in 
V.  11  points  to  Arabia.  All  the  rest  can  be 
harmonized  with  this.  The  theory  that 
Hiddekel  is  the  Tigris  is  by  no  means  proved.^ 
Its  plausibility  depends  upon  the  identification 
of  "  Perath  "  in  v.  15  with  the  Euphrates.  But, 
as  we  have  seen  above,  Ephrath  and  Asshur 
naturally  go  together.  It  is  very  possible  that 
Perath  or  Ephrath  is  first  the  name  of  a  district 
and  then  of  a  stream  in  N.  Arabia. 

1  Most  have  seen  that  the  closing  words  of  Gen.  xxv. 
18a  are  a  gloss.  But  the  gloss  has  not  been  understood. 
Shur  is  the  short  for  Asshur  (cp.  Hur  the  short  for 
Ashhiir)^  and  Asshur  is  in  N.  Arabia. 

2  See  Enc.  Bihlica,  "  Hiddekel  "  (Johns). 


266  Bible  Problems 

{d)  Num.  xxiv.  22.  The  mention  of 
"Asshm-"  with  "Kain"  (the  Kenites)  points 
to  N.  Arabia.  The  larger  Asshur  was  a 
conquering  power,  and  in  so  far  resembled 
Assyria.  V.  24  is  a  riddle,  but  most  riddles 
are  solved  by  patience. 

{e)  2  Sam.  ii.  9.  But  for  the  mention  of 
"  Gilead "  no  one  would  doubt  that  "  the 
Ashurites"  meant  the  people  called  in  Gen. 
XXV.  3  "Asshurim."  There  is  a  riddle  await- 
ing solution — a  test  of  the  methods  of  the 
"  established  "  criticism.^ 

(/)  Isa.  xix.  23-25.  Egypt,  Assyria,  and 
Canaan  do  not  form  a  natural  triad,  nor  is  it 
enough  to  explain  the  opening  clause  of  v.  23 
by  the  remark  of  Delitzsch  that  "the  road 
of  communication  between  these  (Egypt  and 
Assyria)  passes  through  Canaan."  To  Misrim, 
Asshur,  and  Canaan,  however,  no  exception 
can  be  taken. 

1  I  may  refer  to  Critica  Biblica  on  this  passage ;  for  the 
prevalent  view  see  H.  P.  Smithy  in  the  International 
Commentary  Series. 


Notes  267 

(g)  Ezek.  xxiii.  5,  7,  9,  12,  23;  the  bend 
Asshur  here  are  most  naturally  regarded  as  a 
N.  Arabian  people.  The  religious  influence  of 
N.  Arabia  is  Ukely  to  have  been  stronger  and 
more  persistent  than  that  of  Assyria.  It  is 
true,  Babylonian  influence,  direct  and  indirect, 
must  have  been  powerful,  especially  in  the 
department  of  mythology.  But  as  the  text 
of  Ezek.  xxiii.  stands,  Babylonia  is,  oddly 
enough,  less  prominent  in  the  prophetic  indict- 
ment than  Assyria.  Still  stranger  is  the 
language  in  which  the  Babylonians  are  intro- 
duced. Is  it  really  credible  that  "  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Judah  with  the  Chaldeeans  came  to 
pass  through  pictorial  representations,  frescoes 
with  pictures  of  Chaldasan  warriors  which  had 
been  imported  from  Babylon,  and  stirred  up  in 
the  Judaeans  the  wish  to  form  personal  relations 
with  those  who  were  thus  represented  "  ?  Yet 
this  is  how  the  most  thorough  recent  com- 
mentator (Kratzschmar)  sets  forth  Ezekiel's 
meaning. 

{h)  Ezekiel   xxvii.    23.      One   of  the  most 


268  Bible  Problems 

learned  of  liberal-conservative  scholars  (Eduard 
Konig)  insists  very  strongly  that  a  N.  Arabian 
Asshur  or  Ashur  cannot  be  meant  here,  and 
praises  Hommel  for  not  having  used  this  as 
one  of  his  proof-passages/  **Chilmad,"  he 
remarks,  "should  be  'all  Media,'"  following 
Bertholet  and  other  scholars.  Evidently  this 
friend  {pro  tempore)  of  Hommel  has  overlooked 
the  extreme  improbability  of  such  a  sequence 
as  "  Sheba,  Asshur,  Media,"  and  the  fact  that 
the  Septuagint  has  not  Chilmad  but  Charman 
(xapfiav),  which  is  most  naturally  explained  as 
a  corruption  of  Rahman,  i,e,  Jerahmeel  (cp. 
Num.  xiii.  22,  "  Ahiman,  Sheshai,  and  Talmai," 
names  produced  by  popular  corruption  from 
Jerahmeel,  Asshur,  Ishmael). 

(i)  1  Chr.  xiii.  5,  Auth.  Version,  "  Shihor 
of  Egypt "  ;  Rev.  Version,  "  Shihor  (the  brook) 
of  Egypt."  Cp.  Josh.  xii.  3,  "  Shihor  which  is 
before  Egypt."  The  common  supposition  is 
that  the  writers  of  these  passages  gave  an  ideal- 

^  Konig^  FuTif  neue  arabische  Landschaftsnamen  im  Alien 
Testament  (1902)^  p.  iQ,  note  4. 


Notes  269 

istic  extension  to  the  S.W.  frontier  of  Canaan. 
To  this  and  all  other  theories  which  presuppose 
the  general  or  even  universal  correctness  of  the 
vocalization  Misraim,  there  are  cogent  objec- 
tions/ Hommel,  however,  changed  the  posi- 
tion of  the  question  by  showing  that  there  was 
a  southern  Asshur  (or  Ashur).  We  can  now 
easily  believe  that  the  nahal  or  wady  of  Misrim 
{ix,  of  the  Arabian  Musri)  was  also  at  an 
early  period  called  the  wady  of  Asshur,  of 
rather  Ashhur,  and  either  then  or  at  a  later 
time,  by  a  popular  corruption,  called  the  wady 
Shihor.  Shihor,  in  a  word,  is  a  modifica- 
tion of  Ashhur. 

Another  corruption  of  Asshur  or  Ashhur 
is  most  probably  Geshur  (Hommel  wrongly, 
Ge-Shur,  "  valley  of  Shur  ").  There  are  also 
well-attested  mutilations  of  the  two  names, 
viz.  Shur  (see  above)  and  Hur  respectively. 
Hur  has,  no  doubt,  often  been  thought  to 
be  a  Hebraized  form  of  the  Egyptian  Hor 
(Horus).     It  is,  however,  really  of  N.  Arabian 

1  See  Enc.  Biblica,  "Shihor  of  Egypt." 


270  Bible  Problems 

affinities,  as  a  study  of  the  passages  where  the 
name  occurs  (see  especially  Num.  xxxi.  8,  Josh, 
xiii.  21)  will  show.  We  may  compare  the 
name  Turi-Aa,  which  occurs  on  the  cuneiform 
contract  tablet  lately  found  at  Gezer.  Here 
Turi  is  almost  certainly  the  short  for  Situri, 
i.e,  Ashtar  (cp.  Johns,  Palestine  Eooploration 
Fund  Statement,  July  1904,  p.  239).  The 
same  tablet  also  gives  us  Huruasi,  the  first 
part  of  which  is,  according  to  Hebrew  analogies, 
the  short  for  Ashhur.  Mr  Johns  suggests  a 
possible  Semitic  divine  name  Hur,  which, 
however,  at  the  present  stage  of  our  inquiry 
seems  unnecessary. 

For  completeness'  sake  it  may  be  added  that 
Achish  (the  name  of  a  "Philistine"  king) 
probably  comes  from  Ashhur,  and  that  this 
suggests  a  very  possible  origin  for  Kush  (the 
name  of  a  N.  Arabian  region  bordering  on  the 
Israelite  territory).  "  Sisera,"  as  has  been 
pointed  out  by  me  elsewhere,  also  probably 
comes  from  Asshur.  Here  I  must  pause. 
Let  no  one  disparage  such  inquiries.      These 


Notes  271 

names  are  not  mere  dry  stubble.  They 
symbolize  facts  of  pre-historie  as  well  as 
historic  Palestine  in  which  no  student  can 
fail  to  be  interested.  When  a  new  edition 
of  Dr  G.  B.  Gray's  instructive  work  on 
Hebrew  Proper  Names  (London :  A.  &  C. 
Black)  becomes  necessary,  such  a  treatment 
as  that  of  which  I  have  here  given  a  very 
inadequate  idea,  when  extended  to  other 
analogous  names  in  Semitic  inscriptions,  will 
give  many  new  and  valuable  results,  and 
require  many  current  theories  to  be  sometimes 
considerably  qualified,  sometimes  altogether 
abandoned.  If  to  go  forward  is  arduous,  to 
stand  still  is  fatal  to  the  best  interests  of  study. 


PRINTED  BT  NEILL  AND  00.,  LTD.,   EDINBURGH. 


A    Catalogue 

of 

Williams   &   Norgate's 

Publications 


Divisions  of  the  Catalogue 

PAGE 

I.    THEOLOGY 3 

II.    PHILOSOPHY,  PSYCHOLOGY 29 

III.  ORIENTAL   LANGUAGES,    LITERATURE,    AND   HISTORY  .         34 

IV.  PHILOLOGY,    MODERN   LANGUAGES        .  .  .  -39 

V.    SCIENCE,    MEDICINE,    CHEMISTRY,    ETC.         ...         46 

VI.    BIOGRAPHY,       ARCHiEOLOGY,      LITERATURE,       MISCEL- 
LANEOUS       56 

FULL  INDEX  OVER  PAGE 


London 
Williams  &  Norgate 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  W.C. 


INDEX. 


Abyssinia,  Shihab  al  Din,  yj. 
Alcyonium,   Liverpool  Marine  Biol.   C. 

Mems.,  so. 
Algae,  Cooke,  47. 

America,  Creation  Myths  of,  Curtin,  57. 
Americans,  The,  Milnsterberg,  30. 
Anarchy  and  Law,  Brewster,  29. 
Anatomy,    Cleland,    47  ;    Cunningham 

Memoirs,  48  ;  Lock-wood,  51. 
Anthropology,  Prehistoric,  Avebury,  56  ; 

Engelhardt,  57  ;   Laing,  59. 
Evolution  of  Religion,  Famell,  57. 
Apocalypse,  Bleek,  8  ;  Clark,  16. 
Apostles  and   Apostolic    Times,  Dob- 

schiitz,  4  ;  Hausrath,  18  ;    Weinel, 

5  ;  Weizsdcker,  7  ;  Zeller,  9. 
Statutes  of,  edit.  G.  Horner,  26. 
Apostolic  Succession,  Clark,  16. 
Arabic,  Grammar,  Socin,  37. 

Poetry,  Faizullah  Bhai,  35 ;  Lyall,  35  ; 

Ndldeke,  36. 
Ascidia,  Liverpool  Marine  Biol.  Mems., 

50. 
Assyrian,  Dictionary,  Muss-Arnolt,  36 ; 

Norris,  36. 
Grammar,  Delitzsch,  34. 
Language,  Delitzsch,  34. 
Ass3rriology,  Brown,  56 ;  Delitzsch,  10, 

34 ;  Evans,  35  ;  Sayce,  13 ;  Schroder, 

9- 
Astigmatic  Tests,  Pray,  52  ;  Snellen,  54. 
Astronomy,    Cunningham    Mems.,    V., 

48  ;    Memoirs  of  Roy.   Astronom. 
Sac,  62. 

Augustine,  St.,  Confessions  of,  Hamack, 

18. 
Babylonia,  j^<?  Assyriology. 
Belief,  Religious,  Upton,  15. 
Beneficence,     Negative     and     Positive, 
Spencer,  Principles  of  Ethics,  IL,  31. 
Bible,  16. 

5^^  a/jo  Testament. 
Beliefs  about,  Savage,  25. 
Hebrew  Texts,  19, 
History  of  Text,  ^«>,  27. 
Plants,  Hens  low,  19. 
Problems,  Cheyne,  12. 
Bibliography,  F)ibliographical  Register,  56. 
Biology,  Bastian,  46  ;  Liverpool  Marine 

Biol.  Mems.,  50  ;  Spencer,  31. 
Botany,     Bentham    and    Hooker,     46 ; 
Church,  47  ;  Cooke,  47  ;  Grevillea, 

49  ;  /i'z^r.  0/  the  Linnean  Soc,  49  ; 
Prior,  52. 

Brain,  Cunningham  Mems.,  VII.,  48. 
Buddha,  Buddhism,  Davids,  14 ;  Hardy, 

35  ;  Oldenberg,  36. 
Calculus,  Hamack,  49. 
Canons  of  Athanasius,  7V^^  &^  Trans. 

Soc,  38. 
Cardium,  Liverpool  Marine  Biol.  Mems., 

so- 
Celtic,  j<?f  a^<7  Irish. 

Stokes,  43  ;  Sullivan,  44. 
Heathendom,  iJAjVJ,  15. 


Ceremonial  Institutions,  Spencer,  Princ. 

of  Sociology,  IL,  31. 
Chaldee,  Grammar,  Turpie,  38. 

Lexicon,  Fuerst,  35. 
Chemistry,  Berzelius,  46 ;  Dittmar,  48  ; 
Faraday,  49  ;  Van't  Hoff,  49. 
Hindu,  i?<ay,  52. 
Christ,    Early  Christian    Conception    of, 
Pfleiderer,  13,  23. 
Life  of,  /ir«>«,  8. 

No  Product  of  Evolution,  Henslow,  19. 
Study  of,  Robinson,  24. 
Teaching  of,  Hamack,  6,  11. 
The  Universal,  Beard,  16. 
Christianity,  Evolution  of,  G///,  18. 

History   of,    Baur,   8  ;   Dobschutz,   4  ; 
Hamack,  6,  11,  18;  Hausrath,   8, 
19 ;    Johnson,    20 ;    Mackay,    21  ; 
Wernle,  3. 
in  Talmud,  Herford,  19. 
Liberal,  Reville,  11. 
Roots  of,  Martineau,  22. 
Simplest  form  of,  Drummond,  14. 
Spread  of,  Hamack,  5. 
What  is?  Hamack,  6,  11. 
Church,  Catholic,  Renan,  14. 

Christian,  ^awr,  8  ;   C/ar/t,  16  ;   Z?^3- 

schiltz,  4  ;  Hatch,  14  ;  Wemle,  4. 
Coming,  Hunter,  20. 
Civic,  Apathy,  Hunter,  20. 
Codex  Palatino-Vaticanus,  T'tf^^  Z<rc- 

tures.  III.,  44. 
C odium, Z iverpool Marine  Biol.  Mems.,  5 1 . 
Coleoptera,  Murray,  52. 
Communion  of  Christian  with  God,  Herr- 
mann, 19. 
Comte,  Spencer,  32. 
Constellations,  Primitive,  Brown,  56. 
Cornish,  Stokes,  43. 
Creed,  Christian,  16. 
Crown  Theological  Library,  10. 
Cuneiform  Inscriptions,  Schrader,  9. 
Daniel   and   his   Prophecies,   C   /f.   /^. 
Wright,  28. 
Critical    Commentary  on,   C.    //.    //. 
Wright,  28. 
Danish  Dictionary,  Rosing,  43. 
Darwinism,  Schu*man,  30. 
Denmark,  Engelhardt,  57. 
Doctrine  and  Principle,  Beeby,  i6. 
Dog^ma,  History  of,  Hamack,  $. 

of  Virgin  Birth,  Lobstein,  10. 
Domestic  Institutions,  Spencer,   Princ 

of  Sociology,  I.,  31. 
Duck  Tribes,  Morphology  of,  Cunning' 

ham  Mems.,  VI.,  48. 
Dutch,  Cape,  Oordt,  43  ;  Werner,  45. 
Dynamics,  Cunningham  Mems.,  IV.,  48 

Chemical,  Van't  Hoff,  49. 
Ecclesiastes,  Taylor,  26. 
Ecclesiastical     Institutions,     Spencer, 
Princ.  of  Sociology,  III.,  31,  32. 
of  Holland,  Wicksteed,  27. 
Echinus,  Liverpool  Marine  Biol.  Mems, 
50. 


INDEX— continued. 


Economy,  Political,  Mackenzie,  30. 
Education,    Herbert,    57 ;    Lodge,    42 


Spencer,  32. 
Wc 
logue, 


Educational  Works,  see  Special  Cata- 


Eg-ypt,  Religion  of,  Renouf,  15. 
Egyptian  Grammar,  Ermtin,  35. 
Enoch,  Book  of,  Gill,  18. 
Epidemiology,    Trans.  0/  Epidetniolog. 

Soc.,iS- 
Epizootic    Lymphangitis,  Treatise  on, 

Fallin,  52. 
Ethics,  and  Religion,  Martineau,  22. 
Data  of,  Spencer,  Principles  of  E.,  I., 

Induction  of,  Spencer,  Principles  of  E., 
I-,  31- 

Kantian,  Schurman,  30. 

of  Evolution,  Schurman,  30. 

of  Individual  Life,  Spencer,  Principles 
of  E.,  L,  31. 

of  Reason,  Laurie,  29. 

Principles  of,  Spencer,  31. 
Ethnology,  Cunningham  Mems.,  X.,  48. 
Evolution,  Spencer,  31,  32. 

of  the  idea  of  God,  D'Alviella,  14. 

of  Religious  Thought,  D'Alviella,  15. 
Exodus,  Hoerning,  20. 
Ezekiel,  Mosheh  ben  Shesheth,  22. 
Faith,  Herrmann,  12  ;  Rix,  24  ;   IVim- 

mer,  27. 
Fisheries,  British,  Johnstone,  49. 
Flinders   Petrie    Papyri,    Cunningham 

Mems.,  VIII.,  IX.,  48. 
Flora  of  Edinburgh,  Sonntag,  54. 
French,  Boielle,  40  ;  Delbos,  41 ;  Eugene, 
41  ;  Hugo,  41,  42  ;  Roget,  43 ;  also 
Special  Education  Catalogue. 

Literature,  Roget,  43. 

Novels,  A  rmy  Series,  39. 
Fungi,  Cooke,  47  ;  Grevillea,  49. 
Genera      Plantarum,      Bentham     and 

Hooker,  46. 
Genesis,  Hebrew  Texts,  19,  35  ;  Wright, 

C.  H.  H.,  27. 
Geography,  Ancient,  Kiepert,  58. 
Geometry,  Spencer,  W.  G.,  54. 
German,      Literature,      Nibelungenlied, 
42 ;  Phillipps,  43. 

Novels,  A  rmy  Series,  39. 
Germany,  Marcks,  59. 
God,  Idea  of,  D'Alviella,  14. 
Gospel,  First,  Plain  Commentary,  23. 

Fourth,  Drummond,  17  ;   Tayler,  26. 
Gospels,  Lost  and  Hostile,  Gould,  18. 

Old  and  New  Certainty,  Robinson,  24. 
Greek,  Modem,  Zompolides,  45. 
Gymnastics,  Medical,  Schreber,  54. 
Health,  Herbert,  49. 
Hebrew,  Biblical,  Kennedy,  35. 

Language,  Delitzsch,  34. 

Lexicon,  Fuerst,  35. 

New  School  of  Poets,  Albrecht,  36. 

Scriptures,  Sharpe,  25. 

Story,  Peters,  23. 

Synonyms,  Kennedy,  35. 

TextofO.T.,  «^«r,  27. 

Texts,  19,  35. 


Hebrews,  History  of,  Kittel,  6 ;  Peters^ 
12  ;  Sharpe,  25. 

Religion  of,  Kuenen,  9  ;  Montefiore,  14. 
Heterogenesis,  Bastian,  46. 
Hibbert  Lectures,  i^j,  15. 
Hygiene  :  How  to  Live,  Caton,  47. 
Hymns, /<?»^i-,  20. 

Icelandic,  Lilja,  42  ;  F?^a  Gluvis  Saga, 
44. 

Dictionary,  Zoega,  45. 

Grammar,  Bayldon,  40. 
Individualism,  Spencer,  Man  z/.  State,  32. 
Irish,  Atkinson,  40;  ^<7^/fe  of  Ballymote, 

40  ;  ^tf£'/4'  ^  Leinster,  41 ;  Hogan, 

41  ;  Leabhar  Breac,  42  ;  Leabhar 
na  H-  Uidhri,  42  ;  O' Grady,  43  ; 
Stokes,  43 ;  7"i?d?irf  Lectures,  44 ; 
Yellow  Book  0/ Lecan,  45. 

Isaiah,  Diettrich,  34 ;  Hebrew  Texts,  19, 

35- 
Israel,  History  of,  Kittel,  6  ;  Peters,  23  ; 

Sharpe,  25. 
Religion  of,  Kuenen,  9. 
in  Egypt,  Wright,  G.  H.  H.,  28. 
Jeremiah,  Mosheh  ben  Shesheth,  22. 
Jesus,  Life  of,  Keim,  8. 
The  Real,  Vickers,  27. 
Times  of,  Hausrath,  8. 
6"^^  a/j<7  Christ. 
Job,  Book  of,  Ewald,  8  ;  Hebrew  Text, 

19,  35  ;  Wright,  G.  H.  H.,  28. 
Rabbinical    Comment,    on,     T'^^r/   <&* 

Trans.  Soc,  38. 
Justice,   Spencer,   Princ.  of  Ethics,  II., 

31,  32. 
Kant,  Schurman,  30. 
Kindergarten,  Goldammer,  57. 
Knowledge,  Evolution  of,  Perrin,  30. 
Labour,    Harrison,    57 ;     Schloss,     59 ; 

Vynne,  60. 
Leabhar     Breac,    42;    Atkinson,    40; 

Hogan,  41. 
Leprosy,  Abraham,  46. 
Life  and  Matter,  Lodge,  21. 
Lives  of  the  Saints,  Hogan,  41. 
Logarithms,    ^a«^,    53 ;    Schroen,    54 ; 

^-^.f-a:,  55- 
London  Library  Catalogue,  57. 
Lumbar   Curve,    Cunningham   Mems., 

II.,  48. 
Mahabharata,  Sbrensen,  37. 
Malaria,  Annett,  46  ;  Boyce,  47  ;  Dutton, 

4 3  ;  Meins.  0/  Liverpool  School  0/ 

Tropical  Medicine,  51  ;    ^^jj'j,  55  ; 

Stephens,  54. 
Maori,  Dictionary,  Williams,  45. 

Manual,  Maori,  42. 
Materialism,  Martineau,  22. 
Mathematics,  Harnax:k,  49  ;  Spencer,  54. 

>S^tf  rt/j<7  Logarithms. 
Mediaeval  Thought,  Poole,  23. 
Mesca  Ulad,  Todd  Lectures,  I.,  44. 
Metaphysics,  Laurie,  29. 
Mexico,  Religions  of,  R^ville,  15. 
Micah,  Book  of,  Taylor,  26. 
Microscopy,  Journal  0/  the  Roy.  Micro. 

Soc,   50;  Journal  0/  the  Quekett 

Micro.  Club^  50. 


INDEX- 

Midrash,  Christianity  in,  Her/ord,  19. 
Mineral  Systems,  Chapman,  47. 
Monasticism,  Harnack,  18. 
Mosquitoes,  Mems.  of  Liverpool  School 

of  Trop.  Medicine,  51. 
Mythology,  American,  Curtin,  57. 

Greek,  Brown,  56  ;  Si.  Clair,  59. 

Northern,  Stephens,  60. 
Myxomycetes,  Cooke,  47. 
Natural  Selection,  Spencer,  32. 
Nautical  Terms,  Delbos,  41. 
Nennius,  The  Irish,  Hogan,  41. 
New  Guinea,  Cunningham  Mems.,  X.,  48. 
New  Testament,  see  Testament,  26. 
New  Testament  Times,  Hausrath,  8, 19. 
Nitidulariae,  Murray,  52. 
Norwegian     Dictionary,     Larscn,     42 ; 

Rosing,  43. 
Ophthalmic  Tests,  Pray,  52  ;  Snellen,  54. 
Origins,  Christian,  Johnson,  20. 

of  Religion,  Hibbert  Lectures,  14,  15. 
Pali,  Dipavamsa,  34  ;  Milanda  Panho, 
36  ;  Vinaya  Pitakatn,  38. 

Handbook,  Frankfurter,  35. 

Miscellany,  36. 
Pathology,  Inflammation  Idea  in,  /?a«- 

j<7w,  52. 
Paul,     St.,     Baur,    8;     Pfleiderer,    9; 

«^««^/,  5- 
Persian,  Avesti  Pahlavi,  34. 

Grammar,  Platts,  37. 
Peru,  Religions  of,  Reville,  15. 
Philo  Judaeus,  Drumtnotid,  29. 
Philosophy,  29. 

and  Experience,  Hodgson,  29. 

Jewish  Alexandrian,  Drummond,  29. 

of  Religion,  Pfleiderer,  9. 

Reorganisation  of,  Hodgson,  29. 

Religion  of,  Perrin,  22, 

Synthetic,  Collins,  29  ;  Spencer,  31. 
Phyllotaxis,  Church,  47. 
Plague,  Boghurst,  46. 
Political  Institutions,  Spencer,  Princ.  of 

Sociology,  II.,  31. 
Prayers,    Common   Prayer,    16 ;    Jones, 
20  ;  Personal,  1.-3. ;  Sadler,  24 ;  T'^^ 
Services,  26  ;  Viza7-d,  27. 
Prehistoric  Man,  Avebury,  56 ;  Engel- 

hardt,  57  ;  Laing,  59. 
Printing  at  Brescia,  Peddie,  59. 
Professional  Institutions,  Spencer,  Princ. 

of  Sociology,  III.,  31. 
Profit-sharing,  Schloss,  59. 
Prophets  of  O.T.,  Ewald,  8. 
Protestant      Faith,      Hermann,      12 ; 

Riville,  II. 
Psalms,  Hebrew  Texts,  19,  35. 

and  Canticles,  T^^w  Services,  26. 

Commentary,  Ewald,  8. 
Psychology,  Mind,   30 ;  Scripture,   30 ; 
Wundt,  33. 

of  Belief,  PZ-^/^r,  30. 

Principles  of,  Spencer,  31. 
Reconciliation,  Hensloiv,  19. 
Reformation,  Beard,  14. 
Religion,  Child  and,  13. 

History  of,  Kuenen,  9,  ■Li,\Rhiille,  9, 15. 

of  Philosophy,  Perrin,  23. 


continued. 

Religion,  Philosophy  of,  Pfleiderer,  9. 
Struggle  for  Light,  Wimmer,  11. 
.S"^^  «2ri7  Christianity,  History  of. 
Religions,      National      and      Universal, 
Kuenen,  21. 
of  Authority,  Sabatier,  4. 
Resurrection,  Macan,  22 ;  Marchant,  at. 
Reviews  and  Periodical  Publications, 

61. 
Rigveda,  Wallis,  38. 
Rome,  Renan,  15. 
Runes,  Stephens,  60. 
Ruth,  «^«:r>^a?,  C.  //.  ^.,  27. 
I    Sanitation,  in  Cape  Coast  Town,  Taylor, 
I  55- 

I  in  Para,  Notes,  52. 

I    Sanscrit,      Abhidhanaratnamala,      34 ; 
j  Sorensen,  37. 

i    Self-Aid,  in  War,  Caverhill,  47. 
I    Sermons,  Beard,  16  ;  Broadbent,  16. 
j    Services,  Common  Prayer,  16  ',  Jones,  20  ; 
I  7V«  Serriices,  26. 

Silva  Gadelica,  O'Grady,  43. 
Social  Dynamics,  Mackenzie,  30. 

Statics,  Spencer,  32. 
Sociology,  Descriptive,  Spencer,  32. 
Principles  of,  Spencer,  31. 
Study  of,  Spencer,  32. 
Solomon,  Song  of,  R&ville,  23. 
South  Place  Ethical  Society,  Conway, 

17- 
Spanish  Dictionary,  Velasquez,  44. 
Spinal  Cord,  Bruce,  47. 
Sternum,  Paterson,  52. 
Storms,  Piddington,  52. 
Sun  Heat,  Cunningham  Mems.,  III.,  48. 
Surgery,  System  of,  e/^yw  Bergmann,  46. 
Syriac,    Bernstein,    34 ;    Diettrich,    34 ; 

Ndldeke,  36. 
Taal,  Afrikander,  Oordt,  42  ;  Werner,  45. 
Talmud,  Christianity  in,  Herford,  19. 
Tennyson,  ^^/</,  60. 
Testament,  New,  Commentary,  Protes- 
tant Commentary,  9. 
Textual  Criticism,  Nestle,  7. 
Times,  Hausrath,  8,  19. 
.S"^^  a/*<?  Gospels. 
Testament,  Old,  Cuneiform  Inscriptions, 
Schrader,  9. 
Literature  of,  Kautzsch,  21. 
Test  Types,  /'ray,  52  ;  Snellen,  54. 
Theism,  F^y^O',  27. 
Theological  Translation  Library,  3. 
Theology,  Analysis  of,  /^/^^,  18. 

History  of,  Pfleiderer,  9. 
Truth,  Search  for,  Horton,  20. 
Trypanosomiasis,  Button,  48. 
Virgil,  Henry,  57. 
Virgin  Birth,  Lobstein,  10. 
Weissmann,  Spencer,  32. 
Woman's      Labour,      Englishwoman  s 
Review,  57 ;  Harrison,  57 ;  Vynne,  60. 
Suffrage,  Blackburn,  56. 
Yellow  Fever,  Durham,  48. 
Zoology,     Fasciculi     Malayenses,     49 ; 
Journal  of  the  Linnean  Soc,  49  ; 
Liverpool  Marine    Biology    Com- 
mittee Mems.,  50. 


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THEOLOGICAL  TRANSLATION   LIBRARY. 

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men ;  while  such  splendid  historical  veracity  and  outspokenness  would  hardly 
be  possible  in  the  present  or  would-be  holder  of  an  English  theological  chair." 
— Dr  Rashdall  in  The  Speaker. 

"  Some  may  think  that  the  author's  finding  is  too  favourable  to  the  early 
churches  ;  but,  at  any  rate,  there  is  no  volume  in  which  material  for  forming  a 
judgment  is  so  fully  collected  or  so  attractively  presented." — British  Weekly. 

Vol.  XVI. 
THE  RELIGIONS  OF  AUTHORITY  AND  THE  RE- 
LIGION OF  THE  SPIRIT.  By  the  late  Auguste  Sabatier, 
Professor  of  the  University  of  Paris,  Dean  of  the  Protestant  Theo- 
logical Faculty.  With  a  Memoir  of  the  Author  by  Jean  Reville, 
Professor  in  the  Protestant  Theological  Faculty  of  the  University 
of  Paris,  and  a  Note  by  Madame  Sabatier. 

"Without  any  exaggeration,  this  is  to  be  described  as  a  great  book,  the 
finest  legacy  of  the  author  to  the  Protestant  Church  of  France  and  to  the  theo- 
logical thought  of  the  age.  Written  in  the  logical  and  lucid  style  which  is 
characteristic  of  the  best  French  theology,  and  excellently  translated,  it  is  a 
work  which  any  thoughtful  person,  whether  a  professional  student  or  not, 
might  read  without  difficulty." — Glasgow  Herald. 

Vols.  XV.  and  XVII. 

THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  By  Paul  Wernle, 
Professor  Extraordinary  of  Modern  Church  History  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Basel.  Revised  by  the  Author,  and  translated  by  the 
Rev.  G.  A.  Bienemann,  M.A.,  and  edited,  with  an  Introduction, 
by  the  Rev.  W.  D.  Morrison,  LL.D. 

Vol.  I.  The  Rise  of  the  Religion. 

Vol.  II.  The  Development  of  the  Church. 

From  some  of  the  Reviews  of  the   Work. 

Dr.  Marcus  Dods  in  the  British  Weekly—^''  We  cannot  recall  any  work  by 
a  foreign  theologian  which  is  likely  to  have  a  more  powerful  influence  on  the 
thought  of  this  country  than  Wernle's  Beginnings  of  Christianity.  It  is  well 
written  and  well  translated  ;  it  is  earnest,  clear,  and  persuasive,  and  above  all 
it  is  well  adapted  to  catch  the  large  class  of  thinking  men  who  are  at  present 
seeking  some  non-miraculous  explanation  of  Christianity." 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


CATALOGUE  OF  PUBLICATIONS.  5 

THEOLOGICAL  TRANSLATION  LIBRARY— Continued. 

"  This  translation  of  Prof.  Wernle's  lectures  deserves  a  very  hearty  welcome 
in  England.  The  style  is  alive  and  vigorous,  the  thought  suggestive;  the 
whole  narrative  is  admirably  clear  and  simple^  popular  in  the  best  sense  of  the 
term.  ...  It  may  be  accepted  as  a  companion  volume  to  Harnack's  IVhat  is 
Christianity?  as  an  announcement  of  a  liberal  position  of  slightly  differing 
tendency.  It  is  quite  easy  and  pleasant  reading  for  the  ordinary  layman  who 
may  be  desirous  of  knowing  the  present  position  of  the  more  advanced  schools, 
and  how  much  of  the  traditional  theology  these  are  prepared  to  retain.  _  One 
could  wish  that  a  few  more  English  theologians  would  attempt  a  similar 
apologia  for  the  edification  of  the  perplexed  lay  mind."— Daily  News. 

"  No  English  book  covers  the  same  ground,  or  is  conceived  with  the  same 
breadth  and  sanity ;  in  few  works  in  any  language  are  learning  and  insight  so 
happily  combined." — Edinburgh  Review. 

"  The  translation  is  well  done,  and  the  book  is  full  of  interest."— .<4/A#«<r«w. 


The  Earlier  Works  included  in  the  Library  are  : — 

HISTORY  OF  DOGMA.  By  Adolf  Harnack,  Ordinary  Professor 
of  Church  History  in  the  University,  and  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  the  Sciences,  Berlin.  Translated  from  the  Third 
German  Edition.  Edited  by  the  Rev.  Prof.  A.  B.  Bruce,  D.D. 
7  vols.  (New  Series,  Vols.  II.,  VII.,  VIII.,  IX.,  X.,  XL,  KIT.) 
8vo,  cloth,  each  loj.  dd,  ;  half-leather,  suitable  for  presentation, 
I2s.  6d. 

ABBREVIATED  LIST  OF  CONTENTS  :— Vol.  I. :  Intro- 
ductory Division  : — I.  Prolegomena  to  the  Study  of  the  History 
of  Dogma.  II.  The  Presuppositions  of  the  History  of  Dogma. 
Division  I. — The  Genesis  of  Ecclesiastical  Dogma,  or  the 
Genesis  of  the  Catholic  Apostolic  Dogmatic  Theology,  and  the 
first  Scientific  Ecclesiastical  System  of  Doctrine.  Book  I.  : — 
The  Preparation.  Vol.  II. :  Division  I.  Book  II.  -.—  The 
Laying  of  the  Foundation, — I.  Historical  Survey, — /.  Fixing  and 
gradual  Secularising  of  Christianity  as  a  Church. — //.  Fixing  and 
gradual  Hellenising  oj  Christianity  as  a  System  of  Doctrine.  Vol. 
III.  :  Division  I.  Book  II.: — The  Laying  of  the  Foundation — 
continued.  Division  II. — The  Development  of  Ecclesiastical 
Dogma.  Book  I.  : — The  History  of  the  Development  of  Dogma  as 
the  Doctrine  of  the   God-man  on  the  basis  of  Natural  Theology. 

A.  Presuppositions  of  Doctrine  of  Redemption  or  Natural  Theology, 

B.  The  Doctrine  of  Redemption  in  the  Person  of  the  God-man  in 
its  historical  development.  Vol.  IV. :  Division  II.  Book  I.  : — 
The  History  of  the  Development  of  Dogtna  as  the  Doctrine  of  the 
God-man  on  the  basis  of  Natural  Theology — continued.  Vol.  V. : 
Division  II.  Book  II.  : — Expansion  and  Remodelling  of  Dogma 
into  a  Doctrine  of  Sin,  Grace,  and  Means  of  Grace  on  the  basis  of 
the  Church.  Vol.  VI.  :  Division  II.  Book  II.  -.—  Expansion 
and  Remodelling  of  Dogma  into  a  Doctrine  of  Sin,  Grace,  and 
Means  of  Grace  on  the  basis  of  the  Church — continued.     Vol.  VII. : 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 


THEOLOGICAL  TRANSLATION  LIBRARY-Continued. 

Division  II  Book  III.  -.—The  Threefold  Issue  of  the  History  of 
Dogma. — Full  Index. 

"No  work  on  Church  history  in  recent  times  has  had  the  influence  of  Prof. 
Harnack's  History  of  Dogma"— Times. 

"  A  book  which  is  admitted  to  be  one  of  the  most  important  theological  works 
of  the  time." — Daily  News. 

WHAT  IS  CHRISTIANITY?  Sixteen  Lectures  delivered  in 
the  University  of  Berlin  during  the  Winter  Term,  1 899-1 900.  By 
Adolf  Harnack.  Translated  by  Thomas  Bailey  Saunders.  (New 
Series,  Vol.  XIV.)  Demy  8vo,  cloth,  lOs.  6d.  ;  half-leather,  suit- 
able for  presentation,  12s.  6d. 

Prof.  W.  Sanday  of  Oxford,  in  the  examination  of  the  work,  says  : — "  I  may 
assume  that  Harnack's  book,  which  has  attracted  a  good  deal  of  attention  in  this 
country  as  in  Germany,  is  by  this  time  well  known,  and  that  its  merits  are 
recognised — its  fresh  and  vivid  descriptions,  its  breadth  of  view  and  skilful 
selection  of  points,  its  frankness,  its  genuine  enthusiasm,  its  persistent  effort  to 
get  at  the  living  realities  of  religion." 

"  Seldom  has  a  treatise  of  the  sort  been  at  once  so  suggestive  and  so 
stimulating.  Seldom  have  the  results  of  so  much  learning  been  brought  to  bear 
on  the  religious  problems  which  address  themselves  to  the  modern  mind." — 
Pitot. 

"In  many  respects  this  is  the  most  notable  work  of  Prof.  Harnack.  .  •  . 
These  lectures  are  most  remarkable,  both  for  the  historical  insight  they  display 
and  for  their  elevation  of  tone  and  purpose." — Literature. 

THE  COMMUNION  OF  THE  CHRISTIAN  WITH  GOD  : 
A  Discussion  in  Agreement  with  the  View  of  Luther.    By 

W.  Herrmann,  Dr.  Theol. ,  Professor  of  Dogmatic  Theology  in  the 
University  of  Marburg.  Translated  from  the  Second  thoroughly 
revised  Edition,  with  Special  Annotations  by  the  Author,  by  J. 
Sandys  Stanyon,  M.A.  (New  Series,  Vol.  IV.)  8vo,  cloth. 
\os.  6d. 

"  It  will  be  seen  from  what  has  been  said  that  this  book  is  a  very  important 
one.  .  .  .  The  translation  is  also  exceedingly  well  done." — Critical  keview. 

"  We  trust  the  book  will  be  widely  read,  and  should  advise  those  who  read  it 
to  do  so  twice." — Primitive  Methodist  Quarterly. 

"  Instinct  with  genuine  religious  feeling ;  .  .  .  exceedingly  interesting  and 
suggestive." — Glasgoro  Herald, 

A  HISTORY  OF  THE  HEBREWS.  By  R.  Kittel,  Ordinary 
Professor  of  Theology  in  the  University  of  Breslau.  In  2  vols. 
(New  Series,  Vols.  III.  and  VI.)  8vo,  cloth.  Each  volume, 
loj.  dd. 

Vol.  I.  Sources  of  Information  and  History  of  the  Period 
up  to  the  Death  of  Joshua.  Translated  by  John  Taylor, 
D.Lit.,  M.A. 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


CATALOGUE  OF  PUBLICATIONS. 


THEOLOGICAL  TRANSLATION  LIBRARY— Continued. 

Vol.  II.  Sources  of  Information  and  History  of  the 
Period  down  to  the  Babylonian  Exile.  Translated  by  Hope 
W.  Hogg,  B.D.,  and  E.  B.  Speirs,  D.D. 

"  It  is  a  sober  and  earnest  reconstruction,  for  which  every  earnest  student  of 
the  Old  Testament  should  be  gmtefuV—Ckrisiian  World, 

'*  It  will  be  a  happy  day  for  pulpit  and  pew  when  a  well-thumbed  copy  of 
the  History  of  the  Hebrews  is  to  be  found  m  every  manse  and  parsonage."— 
Literary  World. 

"  It  is  a  work  which  cannot  fail  to  attract  the  attention  of  thoughtful  people 
in  this  country." — Pall  Mall  Gazette. 


AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  TEXTUAL  CRITICISM 
OF  THE  GREEK  NEW  TESTAMENT.  By  Professor 
Eberhard  Nestle,  of  Maulbronn.  Translated  from  the  Second 
Edition,  with  Corrections  and  Additions  by  the  Author,  by  William 
Edie,  B.D.,  and  edited,  with  a  Preface,  by  Allan  Menzies,  D.D., 
Professor  of  Divinity  and  Biblical  Criticism  in  the  University  of  St. 
Andrews.  (New  Series,  Vol.  XUI.)  With  eleven  reproductions 
of  Texts.     Demy  8vo,  lo^.  dd.  ;  half-leather,  I2s.  6d. 

"We  have  no  living  scholar  more  capable  of  accomplishing  the  fascinating 
task  of  preparing  a  complete  introduction  on  the  new  and  acknowledged  prin- 
ciples than  Prof.  Nestle.  This  book  will  stand  the  most  rigorous  scrutiny ;  it 
will  surpass  the  highest  expectation." — Expository  Times. 

"Nothing  could  be  better  than  Dr.  Nestle's  account  of  the  materials  which 
New  Testament  textual  criticism  has  to  deal  with, " — Spectator. 

"We  know  of  no  book  of  its  size  which  can  be  recommended  more  cordially 
to  the  student,  alike  for  general  interest  and  for  the  clearness  of  its  arrangement. 
.  .  .  In  smoothness  of  rendering,  the  translation  is  one  of  the  best  we  have 
come  across  for  a  considerable  time." — Manchester  Guardian. 


THE  APOSTOLIC  AGE.  By  Prof.  Carl  von  Weizsacker.  Trans- 
lated by  James  Millar,  B.D.  2  vols.  (New  Series,  Vols.  I.  and 
V.)    Demy  8vo,  cloth.     Each  10^.  6d. 

"  Weizsacker  is  an  authority  of  the  very  first  rank.  The  present  work  marks 
an  epoch  in  New  Testament  criticism.  The  English  reader  is  fortunate  in 
having  a  masterpiece  of  this  kind  rendered  accessible  to  him." — Expository 
Times. 

" .  .  .  No  student  of  theology  or  of  the  early  history  of  Christianity  can 
afford  to  leave  Weizsacker's  great  book  unread." — Manchester  Guardian. 

"  In  every  direction  in  this  work  we  find  the  mark  of  the  independent 
thinker  and  investigator  .  .  .  this  remarkable  volume  .  .  .  this  able  and 
learned  work.     .     .     ." — Christian  World. 

'•  The  book  itself  ...  is  of  great  interest,  and  the  work  of  the  translation 
has  been  done  in  a  most  satisfactory  way." — Critical  Review. 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 


THEOLOGICAL  TRANSLATION   FUND  LIBRARY. 

©ID  BctiCS. 

Uniform  Price  per  Volume^  6s. 

BAUR  (F.  C).  CHURCH  HISTORY  OF  THE  FIRST 
THREE  CENTURIES.  Translated  from  the  Third  German 
Edition.    Edited  by  Rev.  Allan  Menzies.     2  vols.  8vo,  cloth.     \2s. 

PAUL,   THE  APOSTLE  OF  JESUS  CHRIST,  HIS 

LIFE  AND  WORK,  HIS  EPISTLES  AND  DOC- 
TRINE. A  Contribution  to  a  Critical  History  of  Primitive 
Christianity.  Edited  by  Rev.  Allan  Menzies.  2nd  Edition. 
2  vols.  8vo,  cloth.     \2s. 

BLEEK    (F.).      LECTURES    ON    THE   APOCALYPSE. 

Translated.  Edited  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  S.  Davidson.  8vo,  cloth. 
6s. 

EWALD'S  (Dr.  H.)  COMMENTARY  ON  THE  PRO- 
PHETS OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  Translated  by 
the  Rev.  J.  F.  Smith.  [Vol.  I.  General  Introduction,  Yoel,  Amos, 
Rosea,  and  Zakharya  9-1 1.  Vol.  II.  Yesaya,  Obadya,  and  Mikah. 
Vol.  III.  Nahiim,  Ssephanya,  Habaqquq,  Zakharya,  Yeremya. 
Vol.  IV.  Hezekiel,  Yesaya  xl.-lxvi.  Vol.  V.  Haggai,  Zakharya, 
Malaki,  Jona,  Baruc,  Daniel,  Appendix  and  Index.]  5  vols.  8vo, 
cloth.     30J. 

COMMENTARY    ON    THE   PSALMS.      Translated  by 

the  Rev.  E.  Johnson,  M.A.     2  vols.  8vo,  cloth,     I2J. 

COMMENTARY    ON    THE    BOOK    OF   JOB,    with 

Translation.  Translated  from  the  German  by  the  Rev.  J. 
Frederick  Smith.     8vo,  cloth,     ds. 

HAUSRATH  (Prof.  A.).  HISTORY  OF  THE  NEW 
TESTAMENT  TIMES.  The  Time  of  Jesus.  Translated 
by  the  Revs.  C.  T.  Poynting  and  P.  Quenzer.  2  vols.  8vo,  cloth. 
1 2  J. 

The  second  portion  of  this  work,  "The  Times  of  the  Apostles,'' 
was  issued  apart  from  the  Library,  but  in  uniform  volumes  ;  see 
p.  18. 

KEIM'S  HISTORY  OF  JESUS  OF  NAZARA :  Considered 
in  its  connection  with  the  National  Life  of  Israel,  and 
related  in  detail.  Translated  from  the  German  by  Arthur  Ransom 
and  the  Rev.  E.  M.  Geldart.  [Vol.  I.  Second  Edition.  Intro- 
duction, Survey  of  Sources,  Sacred  and  Political  Groundwork. 
Religious  Groundwork.  Vol.  II.  The  Sacred  Youth,  Self-recog- 
nition, Decision.     Vol.  III.   The  First  Preaching,  the  Works  of 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


CATALOGUE  OF  PUBLICATIONS. 


THEOLOGICAL  TRANSLATION  FUND  LIBRARY-Continued. 

Jesus,  the  Disciples,  and  Apostolic  Mission.  Vol.  IV.  Conflicts 
and  Disillusions,  Strengthened  Self-confidence,  Last  Efforts  in 
Galilee,  Signs  of  the  Approaching  Fall,  Recognition  of  the  Messiah. 
Vol.  V.  The  Messianic  Progress  to  Jerusalem,  the  Entry  into 
Jerusalem,  the  Decisive  Struggle,  the  Farewell,  the  Last  Supper. 
Vol.  VI.  The  Messianic  Death  at  Jerusalem.  Arrest  and  Pseudo- 
Trial,  the  Death  on  the  Cross,  Burial  and  Resurrection,  the 
Messiah's  Place  in  History,  Indices.]  Complete  in  6  vols. 
8vo.     36J. 

(Vol.  I.  only  to  be  had  when  a  complete  set  of  the  work  is 
ordered.) 

KUENEN  (Dr.  A.).  THE  RELIGION  OF  ISRAEL  TO 
THE   FALL  OF  THE  JEWISH   STATE.      By  Dr.  A. 

Kuenen,  Professor  of  Theology  at  the  University,  Leyden.  Trans- 
lated from  the  Dutch  by  A.  H.  May.     3  vols.  8vo,  cloth.     iSs. 

PFLEIDERER  (O.).  PAULINISM  :  A  Contribution  to  the 
History  of  Primitive  Christian  Theology.  Translated  by  E. 
Peters.     2nd  Edition,     2  vols.  8vo,  cloth.      12s. 

PHILOSOPHY  OF  RELIGION  ON  THE  BASIS  OF 

ITS  HISTORY.  (Vols.  I.  II.  History  of  the  Philosophy  of 
Religion  from  Spinoza  to  the  Present  Day  ;  Vols.  III.  IV.  Genetic- 
Speculative  Philosophy  of  Religion.)  Translated  by  Prof.  Allan 
Menzies  and  the  Rev.  Alex.  Stewart.     4  vols.  8vo,  cloth.     24s. 

REVILLE  (Dr.  A).  PROLEGOMENA  OF  THE  HIS- 
TORY OF  RELIGIONS.  With  an  Introduction  by  Prof. 
F.  Max  Miiller.     8vo,  cloth.     6s. 

PROTESTANT  COMMENTARY  ON  THE  NEW  TES- 
TAMENT. With  General  and  Special  Introductions.  Edited 
by  Profs.  P.  W.  Schmidt  and  F.  von  Holzendorff.  Translated 
from  the  Third  German  Edition  by  the  Rev.  F.  H.  Jones,  B.A. 
3  vols.  8vo,  cloth.     iSs. 

SCHRADER  (Prof.  E.).  THE  CUNEIFORM  INSCRIP- 
TIONS AND  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  Translated 
from  the  Second  Enlarged  Edition,  with  Additions  by  the  Author, 
and  an  Introduction  by  the  Rev.  Owen  C.  Whitehouse,  M.A. 
2  vols.     (Vol.  I.  not  sold  separately.)    With  a  Map.     8vo,  cloth. 

12S. 

ZELLER  (Dr.  E.).  THE  CONTENTS  AND  ORIGIN  OF 
THE  ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES  CRITICALLY 
INVESTIGATED.  Preceded  by  Dr.  Fr.  Overbeck's  Intro- 
duction to  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  from  De  Wette's  Handbook. 
Translated  by  Joseph  Dare.     2  vols.  8vo,  cloth.     12^. 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 


THE    CROWN    THEOLOGICAL    LIBRARY. 

Dr.  John  Watson,  of  Liverpool:  "The  Crown  Theological 
Library  is  rendering  valuable  service  to  lay  theologians  in  this 
country,  as  well  as  to  ministers." 

The  volumes  are  uniform  in  size  [crown  octavo)  and  binding,  but 
the  price  varies  according  to  the  size  and  importance  of  the  work. 

Vol.  I.  BABEL  AND  BIBLE.  By  Dr.  Friedrich  Delitzsch,  Pro- 
fessor  of  Assyriology  in  the  University  of  Berlin.  Authorised 
Translation.  Edited,  with  an  Introduction,  by  Rev.  C.  H.  W. 
Johns.     Crown  8vo,  with  77  illustrations,  cloth.     5^. 

These  are  the  two  famous  Lectures  which  were  delivered  before 
the  Deutsche  Orient-Gesellschaft  in  the  presence  of  the  German 
Emperor,  and  again  before  the  Emperor,  Empress,  and  the  Court, 
and  which  gave  rise  to  the  Babel-Bible  controversy.  They  set  forth 
freshly  and  temperately  the  close  relation  between  the  results  of 
cuneiform  studies  and  the  more  familiar  facts  of  the  Old  Testament, 
and  clearly  state  the  conclusions  of  European  scholarship  as  to  the 
compilation  of  the  Pentateuch  from  many  different  sources,  and  as 
to  its  dependence  on  Babylonian  myths  for  large  portions  of  its 
primeval  history. 

"This  interestingly  illustrated  and  well-made  version  of  the  Lectures  should 
satisfy  both  scholars  and  general  readers,  though  no  doubt  scholars  will  know 
best  how  to  appreciate  the  high  value  of  its  arguments." — Scotsman. 

"It  is  written  in  an  interesting  and  arresting  style,  and  gives  the  best 
account  we  have  seen  in  short  compass  of  these  most  important  discoveries." — 
The  Weekly  Leader. 

"  It  is  long  since  any  book  on  Biblical  Archaeology  could  claim  to  be  more 
deeply  interesting  to  inquiring  minds  than  this  volume  must  be  admitted  to  be 
by  any  thoughtful  reader.  .  .  ,  We  believe  that  most  readers  will  be 
delighted  with  the  book  as  a  description,  romantic  in  its  realism,  of  actual  dis- 
coveries, and  their  bearing  on  the  accuracy  of  the  Old  Testament  statements." 
Christian  Commonwealth. 

Vol.  II.  THE  VIRGIN  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST:  An  Historical 
and  Critical  Essay.  By  Paul  Lobstein,  Professor  of  Dogmatics 
in  the  University  of  Strassburg.  Translated  by  Victor  Leuliette, 
A.K.C.,  B.-es-L.,  Paris.  Edited,  with  an  Introduction,  by  Rev. 
W.  D.  Morrison,  LL.D.     Crown  8vo.     3.^. 

"It  should  be  added  that  Lobstein  falls  behind  no  one  of  those  who  have 
refined  the  tone  of  modern  controversy,  that  his  attitude  to  those  whose  views 
he  opposes  is  considerate,  his  own  purpose  constructive  for  faith,  and  his  tone 
impressively  reverent.  Mr  Leuliette's  translation  is  in  admirably  clear  and 
good  English." — Hibbert  Journal. 

"  Professor  Lobstein  handles  his  theme  with  a  thoroughly  reverent  spirit,  and 
the  book  may  be  recommended  to  all  who  are  in  doubt  as  to  this  particular 
dogma. " — Scotsman. 

"  No  one  who  reads  this  most  scholarly  and  convincing  volume  will  doubt 
the  sincerity  of  the  Professor's  endeavovu-  and  aim ;  and  most  readers  will  grate- 
fully own  the  notable  success  he  has  achieved." — St  Andrew. 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


CATALOGUE  OF   PUBLICATIONS.  ii 

THE  CROWN  THEOLOGICAL  LIBRARY— Continued. 

Vol.  III.  MY  STRUGGLE  FOR  LIGHT:  Confessions  of  a 
Preacher.  By  R.  Wimmer,  Pastor  of  Weisweil-am-Rhein  in 
Baden.     Crown  8vo,  cloth.     35-.  6d. 

Dr  P.  T.  Forsyth,  Principal  of  Hackney  College. — "A  beautiful  translation 
of  a  beautiful  book." 

"  It  is  a  book  which  will  appeal  to  ministers  who  are  anxious  to  preserve 
intellectual  sincerity,  and  to  thoughtful  laymen  who  are  turning  over  in  their 
mind  the  deepest  problems  of  religion.  The  author's  spirit  throughout  the  book 
reminds  one  of  Martineau.  The  tone  and  style  of  the  book  are  admirable." — 
Dr  John  Watson  in  Christian  Commonwealth. 

"Well  worth  translating  and  adding  to  the  Crown  Theological  Library.  It 
is  a  book  of  beautiful  intention  and  most  sincere  aspiration." — Expository 
Times. 

"This  is  a  notable  and  vital  book,  full  of  keen  thought  and  sweet  with  the 
fragrance  of  true  piety." — Week's  Survey. 

"This  is  a  delightful  book,  for  we  have  in  it,  not  the  result  of  scholarship, 
though  that  is  sound  and  wide,  but  the  faithful  record  of  the  victorious  struggles 
of  a  religious  genius  with  the  spectres  of  a  mind  which  assail  every  earnest  and 
thoughtful  man  in  this  critical  age.  The  book  has  one  of  the  marks  of  true 
greatness — absolute  sincerity.  The  entire  courage,  simplicity,  and  clearminded- 
ness  with  which  Wimmer  faces  the  difficulties  of  modern  religious  thought 
enforce  our  admiration,  and  win  our  trust  and  sympathy." — Examiner. 

Vol.  IV.  LIBERAL  CHRISTIANITY:  Its  Origin,  Nature,  and 
Mission.  By  Jean  R6ville,  Professeur  adjoint  a  la  Facult6  de 
Theologie  Protestante  de  I'Universite  de  Paris.  Translated  and 
edited  by  Victor  Leuliette,  A.K.C.,  B.-es-L.  Crown  8vo, 
cloth.     4J. 

"The  book  is  a  powerful,  lucid  and  interesting  restatement  of  the  position 
of  Protestantism  in  regard  to  modern  advances  in  philosophy  and  science." — 
Scotsman. 

"  We  commend  the  book  for  its  lucid  style,  vigorous  reasoning,  and  spiritual 
aims. " — Christian  Commonwealth. 

"  Admirably  translated  and  edited  by  Victor  Leuliette  ;  is  a  book  which  will 
be  of  great  value  to  all  who  are  interested  in  the  history  of  religious  develop- 
ment."— St  Andrew. 

"  An  honest  and  earnest  effort  to  vindicate  the  eternal  place  of  religion  in  the 
life  of  man,  and  deserves  all  respect." — Week's  Survey. 

Vol.  V.  WHAT  IS  CHRISTIANITY?  By  Adolf  Hamack, 
Professor  of  Church  History  in  the  University,  Berlin.  Translated 
by  Thomas  Bailey  Saunders.     Crown  8vo.     5^-. 

Prof.  W.  Sanday,  of  Oxford,  in  an  examination  of  the  work,  says  : — "  I  may 
assume  that  Hamack 's  book,  which  has  attracted  a  good  deal  of  attention  in  this 
country  as  in  Germany,  is  by  this  time  well  known,  and  that  its  merits  are 
recognised — its  fresh  and  vivid  descriptions,  its  breadth  of  view  and  skilful 
selection  of  points,  its  frankness,  its  genuine  enthusiasm,  its  persistent  effort  to 
get  at  the  living  realities  of  religion." 

"  In  many  respects  this  is  the  most  notable  work  of  Prof.  Hamack.  .  .  . 
These  lectures  are  most  remarkable,  both  for  the  historical  insight  they  display 
and  for  their  elevation  of  tone  and  purpose." — Literature. 


14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 


THE  CROWN  THEOLOGICAL  LIBRARY-Continued. 

Vol.  VI.  FAITH  AND  MORALS.  By  W.  Herrmann,  Professor  of 
Systematic  Theology  at  the  University  of  Marburg;  Author  of  "The 
Communion  of  the  Christian  with  God."     Crown  8vo,  cloth,      ^s. 

Two  of  the  author's  shorter  writings,  with  brief  notes  by  the  translators. 
One  is  on  Ritschl,  and  discusses  the  Protestant  notion  of  Christian  Belief;  the 
other  on  Romanist  versus  Protestant  Ethics,  showing  the  fundamentally  opposite 
conceptions  of  the  moral  law  underlying  recent  Jesuit  and  Protestant  views  of 
truth-speaking  or  of  conscience.  An  Appendix  written  for  the  last  German 
edition  deals  with  three  replies. 

Vol.  VII.  EARLY  HEBREW  STORY.  A  Study  of  the  Origin, 
the  Value,  and  the  Historical  Background  of  the  Legends  of  Israel. 
By  John  P.  Peters,  D.D.,  Rector  of  St.  Michael's  Church,  New 
York  ;  author  of  "  Nippur,  or  Explorations  and  Adventures  on  the 
Euphrates."     Crown  8vo,  cloth,      ^s. 

These  lectures  were  originally  delivered  as  Bond  Lectures  before  the  Bangor 
Theological  Seminarj'  in  Bangor,  Me.,  U.S.A.  Extract  from  a  minute  adopted 
by  the  Faculty  of  that  Institution  after  the  delivery  of  those  lectures: — "The 
broad  and  ripe  scholarship,  the  fresh  knowledge  of  details,  the  constructive 
temper,  and  the  reverent  Christian  spirit  which  were  always  manifest,  gave 
these  lectures  exceptional  worth,  not  only  for  the  student  body,  but  for  the 
large  company  of  thoughtful  people  who  heard  them.  We  earnestly  hope  that 
these  lectures  will  be  published,  for,  while  opinions  may  differ  about  some  of 
the  conclusions  arrived  at,  we  believe  that  the  course  is  adapted  to  promote 
biblical  scholarship,  and  that  their  expert  knowledge  and  positive  constructive 
tone  give  them  exceptional  value  at  the  present  time." 

"  These  lectures  are  certainly  of  quite  exceptional  worth  ....  will  not  only 
interest  the  general  reader,  but  will  suggest  much  to  the  expert." — British 
Weekly. 

Vol.  Vni.  BIBLE  PROBLEMS  AND  THE  NEW 
MATERIAL  FOR  THEIR  SOLUTION.  A  Plea  for 
Thoroughness  of  Investigation,  addressed  to  Churchmen 
and  Scholars.  By  the  Rev.  T.  K.  Cheyne,  D.Litt.,  D.D., 
Fellow  of  the  British  Academy  ;  Oriel  Professor  of  Interpretation 
in  the  University  of  Oxford,  and  Canon  of  Rochester.  Crown 
8vo.     5-^' 

"  The  temper  of  his  book  is  admirably  gentle  and  restrained,  and  the  matter 
is  of  most  living  interest." — Academy  and  Literature. 

"  The  work  is  remarkably  interesting  and  learned  ....  those  who  wish  to 
understand  what  problems  are  likely  to  engage  attention  in  the  near  future 
ought  not  to  neglect  the  book." — British  Friend. 

Vol.  IX.  THE  DOCTRINE  OF  THE  ATONEMENT  AND 
ITS  HISTORICAL  EVOLUTION  ;  and  RELIGION 
AND  MODERN  CULTURE.  By  the  late  Auguste  Sabatier, 
Professor  in  the  University  of  Paris.  Translated  by  Victor  Leuliette, 
A.K.C.,  B. -es-L.     Crown  8vo.     4^-.  dd. 

"  The  essay  on  the  Atonement  is  a  masterly  outline  sketch  of  the  historical 
evolution  of  the  doctrine." — Oxford  Chronicle. 

*'  The  second  portion  of  the  volume  is  an  admirable  statement  of  the  mental 
condition  of  the  modern  world,  its  doubts  and  confusions,  and  of  the  true 
method  of  resolving  them.  .  .  .  Both  the  studies  in  the  volume  are  profoundly 
interesting ;  marked  everywhere  by  the  piercing  insight,  philosophic  grasp,  and 
and  deep  spirituality  which  are  characteristic  of  this  great  and  lamented 
Christian  thinker." — The  Christian  World. 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


CATALOGUE  OF  PUBLICATIONS.  13 


THE  CROWN  THEOLOGICAL  LIBRARY-Continued. 

VoL  X.  THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  CONCEPTION  OF 
CHRIST:  Its  Value  and  Significance  in  the  History  of 
Religion.  By  Otto  Pfleiderer,  D.D. ,  Professor  of  Practical 
Theology  in  the  University,  Berlin.     Crown  8vo.     3^.  6d. 

•'We  can  heartily  recommend  Professor  Pfleiderer's  book  as  a  solid  contri- 
bution towards  the  solution  of  the  question  which  it  discusses." — St  Andrew. 

"  It  would  be  difficult  to  name  any  recent  English  work  which  could  compare 
with  this  brilliant  essay,  as  a  concise  but  lucid  presentation  of  the  attitude  of 
the  more  advanced  school  of  German  theologians  to  the  Founder  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion." — Scotsman. 


Vol.  XL  THE  CHILD  AND  RELIGION.  Eleven  Essays.  By 
Prof.  Henry  Jones,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  University  of  Glasgow  ;  C.  F.  G. 
Masterman,  M.A.  ;  Prof.  George  T.  Ladd,  U.D.,  LL.D.,  Uni- 
versity of  Yale;  Rev.  F.  R.  Tennant,  M.A.,  B.Sc,  Hulsean 
Lecturer  ;  Rev.  J.  Cynddylan  Jones,  D.D,  ;  Rev.  Canon  Hensley 
Henson,  M.A.  ;  Rev.  Robert  F.  Horton,  M.A.,  D.D.  ;  Rev.  G. 
Hill,  M.A.,  D.D.  ;  Rev.  J.  J.  Thornton;  Rev.  Rabbi  A.  A. 
Green;  Prof.  Joseph  Agar  Beet,  D.D.  Edited  by  Thomas 
Stephens,  B.A.     Crown  8vo.     55-. 

"  No  fresher  and  more  instructive  book  on  this  question  has  been  issued  for 
years,  and  the  study  of  its  pages  will  often  prove  a  godsend  to  many  perplexed 
minds  in  the  church  and  in  the  Christian  home." — British  Weekly. 


Vol  XII.  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  RELIGION :  An  Anthro- 
pological Study.  By  L.  R.  Farnell,  D.  Litt. ,  Fellow  and  Tutor 
of  Exeter  College,  Oxford ;  University  Lecturer  in  Classical 
Archaeology,  etc.,  etc.     Crown  8vo,  cloth.     $s. 

THE  HISTORY  OF  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  LITERA- 
TURE. The  Books  of  the  New  Testament.  By  H.  von 
Soden,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Theology  in  the  University  of  Berlin. 
Translated  by  the  Rev.  J.  R.  Wilkinson,  and  edited  by  Rev. 
W.  D.  Morrison,  LL.D.     Crown  8vo,  cloth.     5^. 


In  Active  Preparation. 

SCIENCE  AND  RELIGION.  A  Demonstration  of  the  Re- 
concilability of  their  Points  of  View.  By  Rudolf  Otto, 
Professor  of  Theology  in  Gottingen. 


JESUS.     By  Wilhelm  Bousset,  Professor  of  Theology  in  Gottingen. 
14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


14  WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 


THE  HIBBERT  LECTURES. 

Library   Edition,   demy  8vo,    los.    6d.    per  volume.     Cheap   Popular 
Edition,  31.  6d.  per  volume. 

ALVIELLA  (Count  GOBLET  D').  EVOLUTION  OF  THE 
IDEA  OF  GOD,  ACCORDING  TO  ANTHROPOLOGY 
AND  HISTORY.  Translated  by  the  Rev.  P.  H.  Wicksteed. 
(Hibbert  Lectures,  1891.)    Cloth.    10s.  6d.    Cheap  Edition,  y.  6d. 

BEARD  (Rev.  Dr.  C).  LECTURES  ON  THE  REFORMA- 
TION OF  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  IN  ITS 
RELATION  TO  MODERN  THOUGHT  AND  KNOW- 
LEDGE. (Hibbert  Lectures,  1883.)  8vo,  cloth.  los.  6d. 
Cheap  Edition,  3rd  Edition,  3^.  6d. 

DAVIDS  (T.  W.  RHYS).  LECTURES  ON  SOME  POINTS 
IN  THE  HISTORY  OF  INDIAN  BUDDHISM.  (Rib. 
Lee,  1881.)     2nd  Ed.     8vo,  cloth,     los.  6d.     Cheap  Ed.,  3^.  6d. 

DRUMMOND  (Dr.)  VIA,  VERITAS,  VITA.  Lectures  on 
Christianity  in  its  most  Simple  and  Intelligible  Form.  (The 
Hibbert  Lectures,  1894.)     los.  6d.     Cheap  Edition,  y.  6d. 

HATCH  (Rev.  Dr.).  LECTURES  ON  THE  INFLUENCE 
OF  GREEK  IDEAS  AND  USAGES  UPON  THE 
CHRISTIAN  CHURCH.  Edited  by  Dr.  Fairbaim.  (Hibbert 
Lectures,  1888.)  3rd  Edition.  8vo,  cloth,  los.  6d.  Cheap 
Edition,  3^.  6d. 

KUENEN  (Dr.  A.).  LECTURES  ON  NATIONAL 
RELIGIONS  AND  UNIVERSAL  RELIGION.  (The 
Hibbert  Lectures,  1882.)  8vo,  cloth,  los.  6d.  Cheap  Edition, 
3J.  6d. 

MONTEFIORE  (C.  G.).  ORIGIN  AND  GROWTH  OF 
RELIGION  AS  ILLUSTRATED  BY  THE  RELIGION 
OF  THE  ANCIENT  HEBREWS.  (The  Hibbert  Lectures, 
1892.)   2nd  Edition.    8vo,  cloth.     lOi^.  6d.    Cheap  Edition,  35-.  6d. 

PFLEIDERER  (Dr.  O.).  LECTURES  ON  THE  IN- 
FLUENCE OF  THE  APOSTLE  PAUL  ON  THE 
DEVELOPMENT  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  Translated  by 
the  Rev.  J.  Frederick  Smith.  (Hibbert  Lectures,  1885.)  2nd 
Edition.     8vo,  cloth,     ioj-.  6d.     Cheap  Edition,  3^-.  6d. 

RENAN  (E.).  ON  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  INSTITU- 
TIONS, THOUGHT,  AND  CULTURE  OF  ROME 
ON  CHRISTIANITY  AND  THE  DEVELOPMENT 
OF  THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH.  Translated  by  the  Rev. 
Charles  Beard.  (Hibbert  Lectures,  1880.)  8vo,  cloth.  \os.  6d. 
Cheap  Edition,  3rd  Edition,  3J-.  6d. 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


CATALOGUE  OF   PUBLICATIONS.  15 


THE  HIBBERT  LECTURES-Continued. 

RENOUF  (P.  LE  PAGE).  ON  THE  RELIGION  OF 
ANCIENT  EGYPT.  (Hibbert  Lectures,  1879.)  3rd  Edition. 
8vo,  cloth.     10s.  6d.     Cheap  Edition,  3^^.  6d. 

RHYS  (Prof.  J.).  ON  THE  ORIGIN  AND  GROWTH 
OF  RELIGION  AS  ILLUSTRATED  BY  CELTIC 
HEATHENDOM.  (Hibbert  Lectures,  1886.)  8vo,  cloth. 
los.  6d.     Cheap  Edition,  31.  6d. 

R6VILLE  (Dr.  A.).  ON  THE  NATIVE  RELIGIONS  OF 
MEXICO  AND  PERU.  Translated  by  the  Rev.  P.  H. 
Wicksteed.  (Hibbert  Lectures,  1884.)  8vo,  cloth,  los.  6d. 
Cheap  Edition,  "^s.  6d. 

SAYCE  (Prof.  A.  H.).  ON  THE  RELIGION  OF 
ANCIENT  ASSYRIA  AND  BABYLONIA.  4th  Edition. 
(Hibbert  Lectures,  1887.)  8vo,  cloth,  10s.  6d.  Cheap  Edition, 
Ss.  6d. 

UPTON  (Rev.  C.  B.).  ON  THE  BASES  OF  RE- 
LIGIOUS BELIEF.  (Hibbert  Lectures,  1893.)  Demy  8vo, 
cloth.     10s.  6d.     Cheap  Edition,  3J.  6d. 


ALPHABETICAL  LIST. 


ALLIN  (Rev.  THOS.).  UNIVERSALISM  ASSERTED 
AS  THE  HOPE  OF  THE  GOSPEL  ON  THE 
AUTHORITY  OF  REASON,  THE  FATHERS,  AND 
HOLY  SCRIPTURE.  With  a  Preface  by  Edna  Lyall,  and  a 
Letter  from  Canon  Wilberforce.  Crown  8vo.  Sewed,  is.  6d.  net ; 
cloth,  2s.  6d.  net. 

ALVIELLA  (Count  GOBLET  D').  THE  CONTEMPOR- 
ARY EVOLUTION  OF  RELIGIOUS  THOUGHT  IN 
ENGLAND,  AMERICA,  AND  INDIA.  Translated  from 
the  French  by  the  Rev.  J.  Moden.     8vo,  cloth.     los.  6d. 

EVOLUTION    OF    THE   IDEA  OF    GOD.      See  The 

Hibbert  Lectures,  p.  14. 

ANNOTATED  CATECHISM.  A  Manual  of  Natural  Religion 
and  Morality,  with  many  practical  details.  2nd  Edition.  Crown 
8vo,  cloth,     is. 

BAUR  (F.  C).  CHURCH  HISTORY  OF  THE  FIRST 
THREE  CENTURIES.  See  Theological  Translation  Library, 
Old  Series,  p.  8. 

PAUL,    THE    APOSTLE     OF     JESUS     CHRIST. 

See  Theological  Translation  Library,  Old  Series,  p.  8. 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 
2 


i6  WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 

ALPHABETICAL  LIST— Continued. 

BEARD  (Rev.  Dr.  C).  THE  UNIVERSAL  CHRIST, 
AND  OTHER  SERMONS.     Crown  8vo,  cloth,     ys.  6d. 

LECTURES   ON  THE   REFORMATION    OF  THE 

SIXTEENTH    CENTURY    IN    ITS    RELATION   TO 
MODERN  THOUGHT  AND  KNOWLEDGE.     See  The 

Hibbert  Lectures,  p.  14. 

BEEBY  (Rev.  C.  E.,  B.D.,  Author  of  ''Creed  and  Life"). 
DOCTRINE  AND  PRINCIPLES.  Popular  Lectures  on 
Primary  Questions.     Demy  8vo,  cloth,     i^s.  6d. 

BIBLE.  Translated  by  Samuel  Sharpe,  being  a  Revision  of  the 
Authorised  English  Version.  6th  Edition  of  the  Old,  loth  Edition 
of  the  New  Testament.     8vo,  roan.     5^.     See  also  Testament. 

BLEEK(F.).  LECTURES  ON  THE  APOCALYPSE.  See 

Theological  Translation  Library,  Old  Series,  p.  8. 

BROADBENT  (The  late  Rev.  T.  P.,  B.A.).  THIRTEEN 
SERMONS,  AN  ESSAY,  AND  A  FRAGMENT.  With 
a  Prefatory  Note  by  Rev.  Prof.  J.  Estlin  Carpenter,  M.A.  Crown 
8vo,  cloth.     4J.  net. 

CAMPBELL  (Rev.  Canon  COLIN).  FIRST  THREE 
GOSPELS  IN  GREEK.     See  Testament,  New,  p.  26. 

CHANNING'S  COMPLETE  WORKS.  Including  "The 
Perfect  Life,"  with  a  Memoir.  Centennial  Edition.  4to  Edition. 
Cloth.     Ts,  6d. 

CHEYNE,  Prof.  T.  K.  BIBLE  PROBLEMS  AND  THE 
NEW    MATERIAL    FOR    THEIR    SOLUTION.      See 

Crown  Theological  Library,  p  12. 

CHILD  AND  RELIGION.  Edited  by  Thomas  Stephens,  B.A. 
5^^  Crown  Theological  Library,  p.  13. 

CHRISTIAN  CREED  (OUR).  2nd  and  greatly  Revised  Edition. 
Crown  8vo,  cloth.     35-.  6d. 

CLARK  (ARCHD.  JAS.).  DE  SUCCESSIONE  APOS- 
TOLICA  NEC  NON  MISSIONE  ET  JURIS- 
DICTIONE  HIERARCHIiE  ANGLICANiE  ET 
CATHOLICiE.     8vo.     {Georgetown,  Guiana.)    Cloth.     2\s. 

SEVEN  AGES  OF  THE  CHURCH  ;  or.  Exposition  of 

the  Apocalypse.     Sewed.     \s. 

COMMON  PRAYER  FOR  CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP:  in 
Ten  Services  for  Morning  and  Evening.  32mo,  cloth,  is.  6d. 
Also  in  8vo,  cloth.     35-. 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


CATALOGUE  OF  PUBLICATIONS.  17 


ALPHABETICAL  LIST-Continued. 

CONWAY  (MONCURE  D.).  CENTENARY  HISTORY 
OF    THE    SOUTH     PLACE    ETHICAL    SOCIETY. 

With  numerous  Portraits,  a  facsimile  of  the  original  MS.  of  the 
hymn,  "Nearer,  my  God,  to  Thee,"  and  Appendices.  Crown 
8vo,  half  vellum,  paper  sides.     5^-. 

DAVIDS  (T.  W.  RHYS).  LECTURES  ON  SOME 
POINTS  IN  THE  HISTORY  OF  INDIAN  BUDDH- 
ISM.    See  The  Hibbert  Lectures,  p.  14. 

DELITZSCH   (F.).      BABEL  AND   BIBLE.      Two  Lectures 

delivered  before  the  Deutsche  Orient-Gesellschaft  in  the  presence 
of  the  German  Emperor.  See  Crown  Theological  Library,  p.  10. 
See  also  Harnack,  A.,  '*  Letter  to  Preuss.  /ahrbiicher,^^  p.  18. 

DOBSCHOTZ  (E.  VON).  CHRISTIAN  LIFE  IN  THE 
PRIMITIVE  CHURCH.  5^^ Theological  Translation  Library, 
New  Series,  p.  4. 

DRIVER  (S.  R.).     See  Mosheh  ben  Shesheth,  p.  22. 

DRUMMOND  (JAMES,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  Hon.  LittD.,  Principal 
of  Manchester  College,  Oxford).  AN  INQUIRY  INTO 
THE  CHARACTER  AND  AUTHORSHIP  OF  THE 
FOURTH  GOSPEL.     Demy  8vo,  cloth,     los.  6d. 

"  This  is  a  valuable  book,  the  work  of  a  liberal  theologian  of  distinction  and 
great  influence." — Rev.  R.  J.  Cami'bell,  in  Christian  Commonwealth. 

"  The  book  is  not  only  learned,  but  also  reverent  and  spiritual  in  tone,  and 
ought  to  find  its  way  into  the  libraries  of  students  of  all  shades  of  belief,  as  a 
very  notable  attempt  to  solve  one  of  the  most  important  of  New  Testament 
problems." — Christian  World. 

"  Of  the  spirit  in  which  Dr.  Drummond  approaches  the  study  of  this  work 
of  a  master  mmd,  of  the  completeness  and  arrangement  of  the  material,  and  of 
the  temper  in  which  the  argument  is  conducted,  it  is  impossible  to  speak  too 
highly. " — Scotsman. 

VIA,  VERITAS,  VITA.     See  The  Hibbert  Lectures,  p.  14. 

PHILO  JUDiEUS.     See  p.  29. 

ECHOES  OF  HOLY  THOUGHTS  :  Arranged  as  Private 
Meditations  before  a  First  Communion.  2rid  Edition,  with  a 
Preface  by  Rev.  J.  Hamilton  Thom.  Printed  with  red  lines. 
Fcap.  8vo,  cloth,     is. 

EWALD  (H.).  COMMENTARY  ON  THE  PROPHETS 
OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  See  Theological  Transla- 
tion Library,  Old  Series,  p.  8. 

COMMENTARY  ON  THE  PSALMS.     See  Theological 

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FIGG  (E.  G.).  ANALYSIS  OF  THEOLOGY,  NATURAL 
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FOUR  GOSPELS  (THE)  AS   HISTORICAL  RECORDS. 

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GILL    (C).      THE    EVOLUTION    OF    CHRISTIANITY. 

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THE  BOOK  OF  ENOCH  THE  PROPHET.  Trans- 
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TINE. Two  Lectures  by  Adolf  Harnack.  Translated  into 
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TH REE  CENTU  RI ES.  See  Theological  Translation  Library, 
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CHRISTIAN  CHURCH.     See  The  Hibbert  Lectures,  p.  14. 

HAUSRATH  (Prof.  A.).  HISTORY  OF  THE  NEW 
TESTAMENT  TIMES.  The  Time  of  the  Apostles.  Trans- 
lated by  Leonard  Huxley.  With  a  Preface  by  Mrs  Humphry 
Ward.  4  vols.  8vo,  cloth.  42^.  (Uniform  with  the  Theological 
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HEBREW  TEXTS,  in  large  type  for  Classes ; 

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HENSLOW  (Rev.  G.).  THE  ARGUMENT  OF  ADAPTA- 
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IS. 

SPIRITUAL   TEACHINGS    OF    BIBLE    PLANTS ; 

or.  The  Garden  of  God.    8vo,  cloth,     is. 

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CONTENTS  : — Introduction.  Division  I.  Passages  from  the 
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HERRMANN  (W.).  THE  COMMUNION  OF  THE 
CHRISTIAN  WITH  GOD.  See  Theological  Translation 
Library,  New  Series,  p.  6. 


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KAUTZSCH  (E.).  AN  OUTLINE  OF  THE  HISTORY 
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Israelites,  and  other  Aids  to  the  Explanation  of  the  Old  Testament. 
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KEIM'S  HISTORY  OF  JESUS  OF  NAZARA.  ^-^f^  Theo- 
logical Translation  Library,  Old  Series,  p.  8. 

KENNEDY  (Rev.  J  AS.).    BIBLICAL  HEBREW.    5^^  p.  35- 

KIRK  (R.  S.).  SIDE-LIGHTS  ON  GREAT  PROBLEMS 
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KITTEL    (R.).      HISTORY    OF    THE    HEBREWS.      Su 

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KUENEN  (Dr.  A.).  LECTURES  ON  NATIONAL  AND 
UNIVERSAL  RELIGIONS.  See  The  Hibbert  Lectures, 
p.  14. 

THE  RELIGION  OF  ISRAEL  TO  THE  FALL  OF 

THE  JEWISH  STATE.    See  Theological  Translation  Library, 
Old  Series,  p.  9. 

LOBSTEIN(P.).  THE  DOGMA  OF  THE  VIRGIN  BIRTH 
OF  CHRIST.     See  Crown  Theological  Library,  p.  10. 

LODGE  (Sir  O.).  LIFE  AND  MATTER.  A  Criticism  of 
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MACAN  (R.  W.).  THE  RESURRECTION  OF  JESUS 
CHRIST.     An  Essay  in  Three  Chapters.     8vo,  cloth.     5^-. 

MACKAY  (R.  W.).  SKETCH  OF  THE  RISE  AND 
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MARCHANT  (JAMES).  THEORIES  OF  THE  RESUR- 
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MARTINEAU  (Rev.  Dr.  JAMES).  THE  RELATION 
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MODERN  MATERIALISM  :  ITS  ATTITUDE  TO- 
WARDS THEOLOGY.  A  Critique  and  Defence.  Svo, 
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MONTEFIORE  (C.  G.).  ORIGIN  AND  GROWTH  OF 
RELIGION  AS  ILLUSTRATED  BY  THE  RELIGION 
OF  THE  ANCIENT  HEBREWS.  See  The  Hibbert  Lec- 
tures, p.  14. 

MOSHEH  BEN  SHESHETH'S  COMMENTARY  ON 
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MS.,  with  a  Translation  and  Notes,  by  S.  R.  Driver.  Svo, 
sewed.     31. 

MUNSTERBERG    (Prof.    HUGO).      THE    AMERICANS. 

See  p.  30. 

NESTLE  (E).  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  TEXTUAL 
CRITICISM  OF  THE  GREEK  NEW  TESTAMENT. 

See  Theological  Translation  Library,  New  Series,  p.  7. 

OTTO    (R.).      SCIENCE    AND     RELIGION.      See    Crown 

Theological  Library,  p.  13. 

PERRIN  (R.  S.).  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 
A  Review  of  Philosophy.     Crown  Svo,  cloth.     6s. 

PERSONAL  AND  FAMILY  PRAYERS.  Svo,  buckram. 
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PETERS    (JOHN    P.).      EARLY   HEBREW  STORY.      A 

Study  of  the  Origin,  the  Value,  and  the  Historical  Background 
of  the  Legends  of  Israel.  See  Crown  Theological  Library, 
p.  12. 

PFLEIDERER  (Dr.  O.).  LECTURES  ON  THE  IN- 
FLUENCE OF  THE  APOSTLE  PAUL  ON  THE 
DEVELOPMENT     OF     CHRISTIANITY.       See     The 

Hibbert  Lectures,  p.   14. 

PAULINISM  :  A  Contribution  to  the  History  of  Primitive 

Christianity.  See  Theological  Translation  Library,  Old  Series, 
p.  9. 

PHILOSOPHY  OF  RELIGION  ON  THE  BASIS  OF 

ITS  HISTORY.  See  Theological  Translation  Library,  Old 
Series,  p.  9. 

THE     EARLY     CHRISTIAN     CONCEPTION    OF 

CHRIST :  Its  Significance  and  Value  in  the  History  of 
Religion.     See  Crown  Theological  Library,  p.  13. 

PLAIN  COMMENTARY  ON  THE  FIRST  GOSPEL.     By 

an  Agnostic.     8vo,  cloth.     14J. 

POOLE  (REG.  LANE).  ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  THE 
HISTORY  OF  MEDIAEVAL  THOUGHT  IN  THE 
DEPARTMENTS  OF  THEOLOGY  AND  ECCLESI- 
ASTICAL POLITICS.     8vo,  cloth.     10^.  6d. 

PROTESTANT  COMMENTARY  ON  THE  NEW  TES- 
TAMENT. See  Theological  Translation  Library,  Old  Series, 
p.  9. 

RENAN  (E.).  ON  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  INSTI- 
TUTIONS, THOUGHT,  AND  CULTURE  OF  ROME 
ON  CHRISTIANITY  AND  THE  DEVELOPMENT 
OF  THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH.  See  Hibbert  Lectures, 
p.  14. 

RENOUF  (P.  LE  PAGE).  ON  THE  RELIGION  OF 
ANCIENT   EGYPT.     See  Hibbert  Lectures,  p.  15. 

REVILLE  (A.).  THE  SONG  OF  SONGS,  Commonly  called 
the  Song  of  Solomon,  or  the  Canticle.  Translated  from  the 
French.     Crown  8vo,  cloth,     is.  6d. 

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R^VILLE  (A.).  ON  NATIVE  RELIGIONS  OF  MEXICO 
AND  PERU.     See  Hibbert  Lectures,  p.  15. 

PROLEGOMENA  OF  THE  HISTORY  OF  RE- 
LIGIONS. See  Theological  Translation  Library,  Old  Series, 
p.  9. 

RfeVILLE  (JEAN).  LIBERAL  CHRISTIANITY.  See 
Crown  Theological  Library,  p.  11. 

See  also  Sabatier's  * '  Religions  of  Authority  and  Religion  of  the 

Spirit,"  p.  4. 

RHYS  (J.).  ON  THE  ORIGIN  AND  GROWTH  OF 
RELIGION  AS  ILLUSTRATED  BY  CELTIC 
HEATHENDOM.     See  Hibbert  Lectures,  p.  15. 

RIX  (HERBERT).  A  DAWNING  FAITH  ;  or,  The  World 
as  a  Spiritual  Organism.     Crown  8vo,  cloth.     5^-. 

ROBINSON  (ALEX.,  M.A.,  B.D.).  A  STUDY  OF 
THE  SAVIOUR  IN  THE  NEWER  LIGHT.  2nd 
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OLD  AND  NEW  CERTAINTY  OF  THE  GOSPEL: 

A  Sketch.     Crown  8vo,  cloth.     2s.  6d. 

SABATIER  (AUGUSTE).  THE  RELIGIONS  OF  AU- 
THORITY AND  THE  RELIGION  OF  THE  SPIRIT. 

With  a  Memoir  by  Professor  J.  Reville.  See  Theological  Transla- 
tion Library,  New  Series,  p.  4. 

THE  DOCTRINE  OF  THE  ATONEMENT  AND 

ITS  HISTORICAL  EVOLUTION;  and  RELIGION 
AND  MODERN  CULTURE.  See  Crown  Theological 
Library,  p.  12. 

SADLER  (Rev.  Dr.).  PRAYERS  FOR  CHRISTIAN 
WORSHIP.     Crown  Svo,  cloth.     3^.  6d. 

CLOSET  PRAYERS,  Original  and  Compiled.  iSmo,  cloth. 
IS.  6d. 

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is.  6d.  net. 

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SAVAGE  (M.  J.).  BELIEFS  ABOUT  THE  BIBLE.  8vo, 
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SAYCE  (A.  H.).  ON  THE  RELIGION  OF  ANCIENT 
ASSYRIA  AND  BABYLONIA.  See  Hibbert  Lectures, 
p.  15. 

SCHRADER  (E.).  CUNEIFORM  INSCRIPTIONS  AND 
THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  See  Theological  Translation 
Library,  Old  Series,  p.  9. 

SEVERUS  (Patriarch  of  Antioch).  THE  SIXTH  BOOK 
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Sge  also  Kautzsch,  "  Outline,"  p.  21. 

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CAMPBELL  (Rev.  Canon  COLIN,  M.A.,  D.D.).     THE 

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UPTON  (C.  B.).  ON  THE  BASES  OF  RELIGIOUS 
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ALPHABETICAL  LIST-Continued. 

VICKERS  (J.).  THE  REAL  JESUS  :  a  Review  of  his  Life, 
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THE  CRUCIFIXION   MYSTERY.     Crown  8vo,   cloth. 

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VOYSEY  (Rev.  C).  THE  SLING  AND  THE  STONE. 
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WEIR  (T.  H.,  B.D.).  A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE 
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WEIZSACKER  (C.  von).  THE  APOSTOLIC  AGE.  2  vols. 
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WERNLE  (Paul).  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  CHRIS- 
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WICKSTEED  (Rev.  P.  H.).  THE  ECCLESIASTICAL 
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WIMMER  (R.).  MY  STRUGGLE  FOR  LIGHT:  Con- 
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COLLINS  (F.  H.).  AN  EPITOME  OF  THE  SYNTHETIC 
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Herbert  Spencer.  5th  Edition.  The  Synthetic  Philosophy  Com- 
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DENNYS  (EDWARD  N.).  THE  ALPHA;  or,  The  First 
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THE      REORGANISATION      OF       PHILOSOPHY. 

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PERRIN  (R.  S.).  EVOLUTION  OF  KNOWLEDGE, 
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SPENCER  (HERBERT).  COLLINS  (F.  H.).  AN 
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DELITZSCH  (Prof.  F.).  ASSYRIAN  GRAMMAR.  With 
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FAIZULLAH-BHAI  (Shaikh,  B.D.).  A  MOSLEM 
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AN    ESSAY    ON    THE    PRE-ISLAMITIC    ARABIC 

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POETRY,  CHIEFLY  PRiE-ISLAMIC.  Translations,  with 
an  Introduction  and  Notes.     Fcap.  4to,  cloth,     los.  6d. 

MACHBEROTH  ITHIEL.  By  Yehuda  ben  Shelomoh  Alcharizi. 
Edited  from  the  MS.  in  the  Bodleian  Library,  by  Thomas 
Chenery,  M.A.     8vo,  cloth.     3^-. 

MILANDA  PANHO,  THE:  Being  Dialogues  between  King 
Milanda  and  the  Buddhist  Sage  Nagasena.  The  Pali  Text, 
edited  by  V.  Trenckner.  440  pp.  8vo,  sewed.  21s.  See  also 
"  Pali  Miscellany." 

MOSHEH  BEN  SHESHETH'S  COMMENTARY  ON 
JEREMIAH  AND  EZEKIEL.     Seep.  22. 

MUSS-ARNOLT  (W.).  A  CONCISE  DICTIONARY  OF 
THE  ASSYRIAN  LANGUAGE  (Assyrian -English- 
German).  By  W.  Muss-Arnolt.  To  be  completed  in  about  15 
parts.     Parts  I.  to  XIX.,  each  5^.  net. 

NEW  HEBREW  SCHOOL  of  POETS  of  the  SPANISH- 
ARABIAN  EPOCH.  Selected  Texts  with  Introduction,  Notes, 
and  Dictionary.  Edited  by  H.  Brody,  Ph.D.,  Rabbi  in  Nachod 
(Bohemia),  and  K.  Albrecht,  Ph.D.,  Professor  in  Oldenburg 
(Grand  Duchy).  English  translation  of  the  Introduction,  etc.,  by 
Mrs  Karl  Albrecht.     Cloth.     Js.  6d.  net. 

NOLDEKE  (THEODOR,  Professor  of  Oriental  Languages 
in  the  University  of  Strassburg).  COMPENDIOUS 
SYRIAC  GRAMMAR.  With  a  Table  of  Characters  by  Julius 
Euting.  Translated  (with  the  sanction  of  the  author)  from  the 
second  and  improved  German  Edition  by  Rev.  James  A.  Crichton, 
D.D.     Royal  8vo.     i8j.net. 

DELECTUS     VETERUM      CARMINUM      ARABI- 

CORUM   GLOSSARIUM    CONFECIT   A.    MULLER. 

Crown  8vo,  cloth,     ys.  6d. 

NORRIS  (E.).  ASSYRIAN  DICTIONARY,  Intended  to 
further  the  Study  of  the  Cuneiform  Inscriptions  of  Assyria  and 
Babylonia.     Vols.  I.  to  III.     4to,  cloth.     Each  28^. 

OLDENBERG  (Prof.  H.).  BUDDHA :  His  Life,  his  Doctrine, 
his  Order.  By  Dr.  Hermann  Oldenberg,  Professor  at  the 
University  of  Berlin.  Translated  by  W.  Hoey,  M.A.  8vo,  cloth 
gilt.     iSs. 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


CATALOGUE  OF   PUBLICATIONS.  37 

PALI  MISCELLANY.  By  V.  Trenckner.  Part  I.  The  Intro- 
ductory Part  of  the  Milanda  Panho,  with  an  English  Translation 
and  Notes.     8vo,  sewed.     4^. 

PLATTS  (J.  T.).  A  GRAMMAR  OF  THE  PERSIAN 
LANGUAGE.  By  John  T.  Platts,  Hon.  M.A.  (Oxon.),  Teacher 
of  Persian  in  the  University  of  Oxford  ;  late  Inspector  of  Schools  in 
the  Central  Provinces  of  India.  Part  I.  Accidence.  Broad  crown 
8vo.     los.  6d. 

RENOUF  (P.  LE  PAGE).  LECTURES  ON  THE  RE- 
LIGION OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT.  See  Hibbert  Lectures, 
p.  15. 

SADI.  THE  GULISTAN  (ROSE  GARDEN)  OF  SHAIK 
SADI  OF  SHIRAZ.  A  new  Edition  of  the  Persian  Text,  with 
a  Vocabulary,  by  F.  Johnson.     Square  royal  8vo,  cloth,     i^s. 

SAYCE  (Prof.  A.  H.).  LECTURES  ON  THE  RELIGIONS 
OF   ANCIENT    BABYLONIA    AND    SYRIA.      See  the 

Hibbert  Lectures,  p.  15. 

SCHRADER  (E.).  THE  CUNEIFORM  INSCRIPTIONS 
AND  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  See  Theological  Trans- 
lation Library,  Old  Series,  p.  9. 

SHIHAB  AL  DIN.  FUTOH  AL-HABASHAH  ;  or,  The 
Conquest  of  Abyssinia.  By  Shinab  al  Din  Ahmad  B.  'Abd  al 
Kadir  B.  Salim  B.  'Uthman.  Edited,  from  an  Arabic  MS.,  by 
S.  Arthur  Strong.     Part  I.     Svo,  sewed.     3^-.  net. 

SOCIN  (Dr.  A.).  ARABIC  GRAMMAR.  Paradigms,  Litera- 
ture, Exercises,  and  Glossary.  2nd  Edition.  Translated  from  the 
3rd  German  Edition  by  the  Rev.  Prof.  A.  R.  S.  Kennedy,  D.D. 
Crown  Svo,  cloth.     8s.  6d. 

KEY  FOR  TRANSLATING  THE  GERMAN  EXER- 
CISES IN  ABOVE  GRAMMAR.     Sewed,     is.  6d. 

SORENSEN  (S.,  Ph.D.),  Compiled  by.  AN  INDEX  TO 
THE  NAMES  IN  THE  MAHABHARATA.  With  short 
explanations.  Royal  4to,  in  twelve  parts,  which  are  not  sold 
separately,  at  7^.  6d.  per  part  net.     Parts  I.  and  II.  now  ready. 

STATUTES,  THE,  OF  THE  APOSTLES.  The  hitherto 
unedited  Ethiopic  and  Arabic  Texts,  with  translations  of  Ethiopic, 
Arabic,  and  Coptic  Texts,  by  G.  Horner,  M.A.     See  p.  26. 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


38  WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 

TEXT  AND  TRANSLATION  SOCIETY.  Established  for  the 
purpose  of  editin<^  and  translating  Oriental  Texts  chiefly  preserved 
in  the  British  Museum, 

Volumes  already  issued — 

THE  SIXTH  BOOK  OF  THE  SELECT  LETTERS 
OF  SEVERUS,  PATRIARCH  OF  ANTIOCH,  in 
the  Syriac  Version  of  Athanasius  of  Nisibis.  Edited 
and  translated  by  E.  W.  Brooks,  M.A.  Vol.  I.  Text,  Parts  I. 
and  II.     Vol.  II.  Translation,  Parts  I.  and  II.     84J.  net. 

THE  CANONS  OF  ATHANASIUS  OF  ALEX- 
ANDRIA, in  Arabic,  Ethiopia,  and  Coptic.  Edited 
and  Translated  by  Prof.  W.  Riedel  (Griefswald)  and  W.  E. 
Crum.     2is.  net. 

A  RABBINIC  COMMENTARY  ON  THE  BOOK  OF 
JOB,  contained  in  a  unique  MS.  at  Cambridge. 
Edited,  with  Translation  and  Commentary,  by  W.  Aldis 
Wright,  LL.D. 


TURPIE  (Dr.  D.  McC).  MANUAL  OF  THE  CHALDEE 
LANGUAGE.  Containing  Grammar  of  the  Biblical  Chaldee 
and  of  the  Targums,  and  a  Chrcstomathy,  with  a  Vocabulary. 
Square  Svo,  cloth.     Js. 

VINAYA  PITAKAM  :  One  of  the  Principal  Buddhist  Holy 
Scriptures.  Edited  in  Pali  by  Dr.  H.  Oldenberg.  5  vols.  Svo, 
cloth.     Each  2is. 

WALLIS  (H.  W.).  THE  COSMOLOGY  OF  THE  RIG- 
VEDA  :  An  Essay.     Svo,  cloth.     5^. 


14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


CATALOGUE  OF  PUBLICATIONS.  39 


IV.   Modern  Languages  &  Literature. 

A  complete  list  of  Messrs.  Williams  (Sr*  Norgate's  Educational  Publi- 
cations on  Modern  Languages  may  be  had  on  application. 

ABBOTSFORD  SERIES  OF  THE  SCOTTISH  POETS. 

Edited  by  George  Eyre-Todd.  I.  Early  Scottish  Poetry;  II. 
Mediaeval  Scottish  Poetry ;  III.  Scottish  Poetry  of  the  Sixteenth 
Century.  Price  of  each  vol.,  3^.  dd.  ;  large  paper,  55.  net.  IV. 
Scottish  Ballad  Poetry.  ^s.  ;  large  paper,  half-morocco,  Rox- 
burghe,  7^.  6d.  net.  V.  Scottish  Poetry  of  the  Seventeenth 
Century.  5^-.  ;  large  paper,  half-morocco,  Roxburghe,  7^-.  dd.  net. 
Vol.  VI.  Scottish  Poetry  of  the  Eighteenth  Century.  Vol.  I. 
3^.  6d.  ;  large  paper,  half-morocco,  Roxburghe,  5^.  net.  Vol.  II. 
cloth,  5i-.  ;  large  paper,  half-morocco,  ^s.  6d.  net. 


ARMY  SERIES  OF  FRENCH  AND  GERMAN  NOVELS. 

Edited,  with  short  Notes,  by  J.  T.  W.  Perowne,  M.A. 

This  series  is  equally  well  adapted  for  general  reading,  and  for  those 
preparing  Cor  the  Army,  Oxford  and  Cambridge  Certificates,  and  other 
Examinations — in  fact,  for  all  who  wish  to  keep  up  or  improve  their  French 
and  German.  The  notes  are  as  concise  as  possible,  with  an  occasional 
etymology  or  illustration  to  assist  the  memory.  The  books  selected  being 
by  recent  or  living  authors,  are  adapted  for  the  study  of  most  modern  French 
and  German. 

LE  COUP  DE  PISTOLET,  etc.    Prosper  Merimee.    2s.  (>d. 

"A  book  more  admirably  suited  to  its  purpose  could  not  be  desired.  The 
Editors  deserve  to  be  congratulated." — National  Observer. 

"  The  first  two  volumes  are  an  excellent  choice,  and  we  advise  any  one, 
whether  candidate  or  lay,  to  purchase  the  volume  of  Merimee." — Journal  of 
Education. 

VAILLANTE.     Jacques  Vincent.     2s.  dd. 

"  The  books  are  well  got  up,  and  in  Vaillante  an  excellent  choice  has  been 
made. " — Guardian. 

"The  notes  are  few  and  brief,  but  all  are  helpful.  The  story  itself  is  a 
delightful  one." — Scotsman. 

AUF    VERLORNEM    POSTEN    AND    NAZZARENA 
DANTI.     Johannes  v.  Dewall.     3.?. 

"The  two  stories  by  Johannes  v.  Dewall  are  well  suited  for  their  purpose; 
the  style  and  diction  are  not  too  difficult  for  those  whose  acquaintance  with 
German  is  not  extensive,  and  ample  explanatory  annotation  is  provided." — 
Saturday  Review. 

"Well  printed,  well  bound,  and  annotated  just  sufficiently  to  make  the 
reading  of  them  sure  as  well  as  easy." — Educational  Times. 


14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


40  WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 


AkMY  SERIES-Continued. 
CONTES  MILITAIRES.     A.  Daudet.     2s.  6d. 

_  ''  These  stories  are  mainly  culled  from  a  series  called  Contes  du  Lundi, 
originally  contributed  by  their  author  to  the  Figaro.  Written  at  fever  heat 
immediately  after  the  great  1870  war,  they  show  Daudet's  power  in  many  ways 
at  its  highest.  .  .  .  We  therefore  do  more  than  recommend — we  urge  all 
readers  of  French  to  get  the  stories  in  some  form,  and  the  present  one  is  both 
good  and  cheap.  The  paper  is  excellent,  and  the  type  clear  and  bold.  .  .  . 
A  neat  map  of  Paris  will  assist  the  reader  in  following  the  movement  of  the 
stories. " —  The  Schoolmaster. 

"The  choice  is  an  exceptionally  good  one,  and  the  notes  are  excellent." — 
Guardian. 

ERZAHLUNGEN.     E.  Hoter.     3^. 

"The  series  has  brought  fascinating  examples  of  fiction  under  the  eyes  of 
English  readers  in  a  neat  and  handy  form.  Besides  having  the  military  flavour, 
they  are  models  of  style." — Scotsman. 


ATKINSON  (ROBERT,  M.A.,  LL.D.).  THE  PASSIONS 
AND  HOMILIES  FROM  LEABHAR  BREAC.  With 
an  Introductory  Lecture  on  Irish  Lexicography.  958  pp.  Todd 
Lecture  Series,  Vol.  II.  8vo,  sewed.  Pages  1-34  out  of  print ; 
pages  35-958»  6j. 

BAYLDON  (Rev.  G.).  ICELANDIC  GRAMMAR.  An 
Elementary  Grammar  of  the  Old  Norse  or  Icelandic  Language. 
8vo,  cloth.     7J-.  dd. 

BOKELLE  (JAS.).  FRENCH  COMPOSITION  THROUGH 
LpRD  MACAULAY'S  ENGLISH.  Edited,  with  Notes, 
Hints,  and  Introduction,  by  the  late  James  Boielle,  B.A.  (Univ. 
Gall.),  Officier  d' Academic,  Senior  P'rench  Master,  Dulwich 
College,  etc.,  etc.  Crown  8vo,  cloth.  Vol.  I.  Frederick  the 
Great.  35-.  VoL  II.  Warren  Hastings.  3^.  Vol.  III.  Lord 
Clive.     3J-. 

See  Victor  Hugo,  "Las  Miserables"  and  "Notre  Dame.*' 

BOOK  OF  BALLYMOTE  (THE).  A  Collection  of  Pieces  in 
the  Irish  Language,  dating  from  the  end  of  the  Fourteenth 
Century.  Now  published  in  Photo- Lithography  from  the  Original 
Manuscript  in  the  Library  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy.  With 
Introduction,  Analysis  of  Contents,  and  Index,  by  Robert 
Atkinson,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  Sanskrit  and  Comparative 
Philology  in  the  University  of  Dublin  ;  Secretary  of  Council, 
Royal  Irish  Academy. 

The  Book  of  Ballymote  contains  numerous  articles  of  interest  to  the  scholar 
and  to  the  antiquary.  The  original  portion  consists  of— Genealogical  Lists ; 
Histories  and  Legends;  a  fragment  of  the  Brehon  Laws;  a  copy  of  the 
Dindsenchas ;  Treatise  on  Grammatical  Topics,  etc.  The  other  portion 
contains  translations  from  Latin  originals :  the  Destruction  of  Troy,  the 
Wandering  of  Ulysses,  the  Story  of  the  iEneid,  and  the  life  of  Alexander  the 
Great. 

In  imperial  folio,  reproduced  by  Photo-Lithography.  Half- 
morocco,  Roxburghe,  cloth  sides.  ;^5,  55-.  (200  copies  only 
printed. ) 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


CATALOGUE  OF  PUBLICATIONS.  41 


BOOK  OF  LEINSTER  (THE),  sometime  called  The  Book  of 
Glendalough.  A  Collection  of  Pieces  in  the  Irish  Language, 
compiled  in  part  about  the  middle  of  the  Twelfth  Century.  From 
the  original  MS.  in  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  With  Introduction, 
Analysis  of  Contents,  and  Index,  by  Robert  Atkinson,  M.A., 
LL.D.,  Professor  of  Sanskrit  and  Comparative  Philolc^y  in  the 
University  of  Dublin  ;  Secretary  of  Council,  Royal  Irish  Academy. 
In  imperial  folio,  on  toned  paper,  with  a  Photograph  of  a  page  of 
the  Original.  Half-roan,  Roxburghe,  cloth  sides.  £6,  6s.  (200 
copies  only  printed.) 

DELBOS  (L.).  NAUTICAL  TERMS  IN  ENGLISH 
AND  FRENCH  AND  FRENCH  AND  ENGLISH. 

With  Notes  and  Tables.  For  the  use  of  Naval  Officers  and  Naval 
Cadets.  By  Leon  Delbos,  M.A.,  of  H.M.S.  Britannia,  Dart- 
mouth. 4th  Edition,  thoroughly  revised  and  considerably 
enlarged,  with  additional  Plates.  Crown  8vo,  cloth.  *js.  6d. 
net. 

EUGENE'S  STUDENT'S  COMPARATIVE  GRAMMAR 
OF  THE  FRENCH  LANGUAGE,  with  an  Historical 
Sketch  of  the  Formation  of  French.  For  the  use  of  Public 
Schools.  With  Exercises.  By  G.  Eugene- Fasnacht,  late  French 
Master,  Westminster  School.  23rd  Edition,  thoroughly  revised. 
Square  crown  8vo,  cloth,  5^-.  ;  or  separately.  Grammar,  31.  ; 
Exercises,  2s.  6d. 

GOETHE  (W.  v.).  ANNOTATED  TEXTS.  5<?^  Educational 
Catalogue. 

HOGAN  (E.).     CATH  RUIS  NA  RIG  FOR  BOINN.    With 

Preface,  Translation,  and  Indices ;  also  a  Treatise  on  Irish  Neuter 
Substantives,  and  a  Supplement  to  the  Index  Vocabulorum  of 
Zeuss's  "Grammatica  Celtica."  Todd  Lecture  Series,  Vol.  IV. 
8vo,  sewed.     3J.  6d. 

THE  LATIN   LIVES  OF  THE    SAINTS  AS  AIDS 

TOWARDS  THE  TRANSLATION  OF  IRISH  TEXTS 
AND  THE  PRODUCTION  OF  AN  IRISH  DICTION- 
ARY. By  Edmund  Hogan,  S.J.,  F.R.U.I.,  M.R.LA.,  Royal 
Irish  Academy's  Todd  Professor  of  Celtic  Languages.  Todd 
Lecture  Series,  Vol.  V.     2s.  6d. 

THE    IRISH    NENNIUS    FROM    L.    NA    HUIDRE, 

AND  HOMILIES  AND  LEGENDS  FROM  L.  BREAC. 

Alphabetical  Index  of  Irish  Neuter  Substantives.  Todd  Lecture 
Series,  Vol.  VI.     2s.  6d. 

HUGO  (VICTOR).  LES  MISERABLES:  Les  Principaux 
Episodes.  Edited,  with  Life  and  Notes,  by  the  late  J.  Bo'ielle. 
2  vols.     6th  Edition.     Crown  Svo,  cloth.     Each  3^.  6d. 


14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


42  WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 

HUGO  (VICTOR).  NOTRE  DAME  DE  PARIS.  Adapted 
for  the  use  of  Schools  and  Colleges.  By  the  late  J.  Boielle. 
2  vols.     2nd  Edition,     Crown  8vo,  cloth.     Each  3^-. 

LEABHAR  BREAC.  The  "Speckled  Book,"  otherwise  styled. 
"The  Great  Book  of  Dun  Doighre":  a  Collection  of  Pieces  in 
Irish  and  Latin,  transcribed  towards  the  close  of  the  Fourteenth 
Century.  "The  oldest  and  best  Irish  MS.  relating  to  Church 
History  now  preserved"  {G.  Petrie).  Now  first  published,  from 
the  original  MS.  in  the  Royal  Irish  Academy's  Library.  In 
imperial  folio,  on  toned  paper.  In  one  vol.,  half-calf,  £\^  /^s, 
(200  copies  only  printed. ) 

LEABHAR  NA  H-UIDHRI.  A  Collection  of  Pieces  in  Prose 
and  Verse,  in  the  Irish  Language,  transcribed  about  a.d.  iioo; 
the  oldest  volume  now  known  entirely  in  the  Irish  language, 
and  one  of  the  chief  surviving  native  literary  monuments — not 
ecclesiastical — of  ancient  Ireland  ;  now  for  the  first  time  pub- 
lished, from  the  original  in  the  Library  of  the  Royal  Irish 
Academy,  with  account  of  the  Manuscript,  description  of  its 
contents,  index,  and  facsimiles  in  colours.  In  folio,  on  toned 
paper,  half-calf.     ;^3,  y.     (200  copies  only  printed. ) 

LILJA  (The  Lily).  An  Icelandic  Religious  Poem.  By  Eystein 
Asgrimson.  Edited,  with  Translation,  Notes,  and  Glossary,  by 
E.  Magnusson.     Crown  8vo,  cloth  extra.     \os.  6d. 

LODGE  (Sir  O.).  SCHOOL  TEACHING  AND  SCHOOL 
REFORM.  A  Course  of  Four  Lectures  on  School  Curricula 
and  Methods,  delivered  to  Secondary  Teachers  and  Teachers  in 
Training  at  Birmingham  during  February  1905.     31. 

"  The  work  of  a  sensible  iconoclast,  who  does  not  pull  down  for  the  sake  of 
mere  destruction,  but  is  anxious  to  set  up  something  more  worthy  in  place  of 
the  mediaivalism  he  atto-cks."  —Outhok. 

"  Let  me  commend  this  wise  volume  not  only  to  teachers  but  to  all  concerned 
in  national  education.  And  especially  to  the  politician.  Half  an  hour  with 
Sir  Oliver  Lodge  would  make  him  realise  that  there  are  problems  on  the  inner 
side  of  the  school  door  not  dreamt  of  in  his  philosophy — would  make  him  feel 
that  the  more  he  knows  of  these  the  better  will  he  be  able  wisely  to  handle  those 
others  about  which  he  is  glibly  talking  every  day." — Dr  Macnamara  in  the 
Daily  Chronicle. 

MAORI.  NEW  AND  COMPLETE  MANUAL  OF 
MAORI  CONVERSATIONS.  Containing  Phrases  and 
Dialogues  on  a  variety  of  Topics,  together  with  a  few  general 
rules  of  Grammar,  and  a  comprehensive  Vocabulary.  4^.  net. 
See  also  Williams. 

NIBELUNGENLIED.  "The  Fall  of  the  Nibelungens,"  other- 
wise "The  Book  of  Kriemhild."  An  English  Translation  by 
W.  N.  Lettsom.     4th  Edition.     8vo,  cloth.     5^. 


14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


CATALOGUE  OF  PUBLICATIONS.  43 

O'GRADY    (STANDISH    H.).      SILVA    GADELICA    (L- 

XXXI.).  A  Collection  of  Tales  in  Irish,  with  Extracts  illus- 
trating Persons  and  Places.  Edited  from  MSS.  and  translated. 
2  vols,  royal  8vo,  cloth.  42^.  Or  separately,  Vol.  I.,  Irish 
Text;  and  Vol.  II.,  Translation  and  Notes.     Each  vol.  21s. 

OORDT  (J.  F.  VAN,  B.A.).  CAPE  DUTCH.  Phrases  and 
Dialogues,  with  Translations,  preceded  by  short  Grammatical 
Notes.     Crown  8vo,  cloth.     2s.  6d.  net. 

PHILLIPPS  (V.,  B.A.).  A  SHORT  SKETCH  OF 
GERMAN  LITERATURE,  for  Schools.  By  Vivian 
Phillipps,  B.A.,  Assistant  Master  at  Fettes  College,  Edinburgh. 
2nd  Edition,  revised.     Pott  8vo,  cloth,     is. 

ROGET  (F.  F.).  AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  OLD 
FRENCH.  History,  Grammar,  Chrestomathy,  and  Glossary, 
2nd  Edition.     Crown  Svo,  cloth.     6^-. 

FIRST  STEPS  IN  FRENCH  HISTORY,  LITERA- 
TURE, AND  PHILOLOGY.  For  Candidates  for  the  Scotch 
Leaving  Certificate  Examinations,  the  various  Universities  Local 
Examinations,  and  the  Army  Examinations.  4th  Edition.  Crown 
Svo,  cloth.     55-. 

See  also  Voltaire. 

ROSING  (S.).     ENGLISH-DANISH   DICTIONARY.     New 

Edition.     Large  Svo,  strongly  bound,  half-roan.     I  \s.  6d. 

SCHILLER  (F.  VON).  THE  BALLADS  AND  SHORTER 
POEMS.  Translated  into  English  Verse  by  Gilbert  Clark. 
Fcap.  Svo,  cloth,     ^s. 

ANNOTATED  TEXTS.     See  Educational  Catalogue. 

STOKES    (WHITLEY).       OLD    IRISH    GLOSSARIES. 

Cormac's  Glossary.  O'Davoran's  Glossary.  A  Glossary  to  the 
Calendar  of  Oingus  the  Culdee.  Edited,  with  an  Introduction  and 
Index.     Svo,  cloth,     los.  6d. 

THE  CREATION   OF  THE  WORLD.     A   Mystery  in 

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MEMOIRS  OF  THE  LIVERPOOL  SCHOOL  OF  TROPI- 
CAL MEDICINE. 

I.  Ross  (R.)  Malarial  Fever :  Its  Cause,  Prevention, 
and  Treatment.     8vo.    2s.  6d. 

II.  Ross  (R.),  H.  E.  Annett,  and  E.  E.  Austen.  Report 
of  the  Malaria  Expedition  to  Sierra  Leone  (1899).    4to.     21s. 

III.  Annett  (H.  E.),  J.  E.  Dutton,  and  J.  H.  Elliott. 
Report  of  the  Malaria  Expedition  to  Nigeria  (1900).  I, 
Malarial  Fever.     4to.     loj-.  6d. 

IV.  Annett  (H.  E.),  J.  E.  Dutton,  and  ].  H.  Elliott 
Report  of  the  Malaria  Expedition  to  Nigeria  (1900).  II. 
Filariasis.  4to.  [This  is  out  of  print  separately,  but  is  also  con- 
tained in  the  Report  of  the  Thompson-Yates  Laboratories,  Vol.  IV. 
Part  I.     Price  20j-.] 

V.  Ross  (R.)  and  M.  L.  Taylor.  Progress  Reports  of 
the  Campaign  against  Mosquitoes  in  Sierra  Leone.  Part  I. 
1901.  With  a  Letter  from  Dr.  Daniels  regarding  the  results 
arrived  at  to  date.     8vo.     is.     Part  II.      1902.     8vo.     is. 

VI.  [Nol  issued  yet.'] 

VII.  Durham  (H.  E.)  and  W.  Myers.  Report  of  the 
Yellow  Fever  Expedition  to  Para  (1900).    4to.     ^s.  6d. 

VIII.  Taylor  (M.  L.).  Report  on  the  Sanitary  Conditions 
of  Cape  Coast  Town.    8vo.     is. 

IX.  Ross  (R.).  Report  on  Malaria  at  Ismailia  and 
Suez.     8vo.     IS. 

X.  Dutton  (J.  E.).  Report  of  the  Malaria  Expedition  to 
the  Gambia.     4to.     lOi-.  6^.  net. 

XI.  Dutton  {].  E.)  and  J.  L.  Todd.  First  Report  of  the 
Trypanosomiasis  Expedition  to  Senegambia  (1902).  4to. 
10s.  6d.  net.  [Also  contained  in  Thompson-Yates  Laboratories 
Reports,  V.  2.] 

XII.  Boyce(R.).  The  Anti-Malaria  Measures  at  Ismailia. 
8vo.     IS. 

XIII.  Dutton  (J.  E)  and  J.  L.  Todd.  Reports  of  the 
Trjrpanosomiasis  Expedition  to  the  Congo  (1903-1904).  With 
a  Comparison  of  the  Trypanosomes  of  Uganda  and  the  Congo 
Free  State  by  PI.  W.  Thomas,  M.D.  M'Gill,  and  Stanley  F. 
Linton,  B.Sc,  M.B.  Liverpool;  and  a  Note  on  Tsetse  Flies  by 
E.  E.  Austen,  Zoological  Department,  British  Museum.  Paper 
covers,     i  <^s. 

LOCKWOOD  (Prof.  C.  B.).  HUNTERIAN  LECTURES 
ON  THE  DEVELOPMENT  AND  TRANSITION  OF 
THE  TESTIS,  NORMAL  AND  ABNORMAL.  Three 
4to  Plates.     8vo,  cloth.     5^. 

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52  WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 


MIERS  (J.).  ON  THE  APOCYNACEiE  OF  SOUTH 
AMERICA.  With  some  preliminary  Remarks  on  the  whole 
family.     35  Plates.     4to,  cloth.     30J. 

MOORE  (T.).  INDEX  FILICUM :  A  Synopsis  of  the 
Genera  of  Ferns.     20  Parts.     84  Plates.     i2mo,  sewed.     20s. 

MURRAY  (ANDREW).  LIST  OF  COLEOPTERA  FROM 
OLD  CALABAR,  ON  THE  WEST  COAST  OF  AFRICA, 
RECEIVED  AND  DESCRIBED.     8vo,  sewed.     Zs. 

NOTES  ON  SANITARY  CONDITIONS  OBTAINING  IN 
PARA.  By  the  Members  of  the  Yellow  Fever  Expedition. 
(Published  by  the  Liverpool  School  of  Tropical  Medicine.)     is. 

PALLIN  (Capt.  W.  A.,  F.R.C.V.S.).  A  TREATISE  ON 
EPIZOOTIC  LYMPHANGITIS.  Second  Edition.  Demy 
8vo,  cloth,  y.  6d,  net.  ;  2t^.  gd.  post  free.  Nearly  100  pages, 
17  full -page  Plates. 

PATERSON  (ANDREW  MELVILLE,  M.D.,  Derby  Pro- 
fessor of  Anatomy  in  the  University  of  Liverpool,  Hunterian 
Professor  at  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of  England). 
THE  HUMAN  STERNUM.  Three  Lectures  delivered  at 
the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  England,  November  1903.  With 
10  Plates.     Crown  4to.     10^.  net. 

PIDDINGTON  (HENRY).  THE  SAILORS'  HORN-BOOK 
FOR  THE  LAW  OF  STORMS.  Being  a  Practical  Exposi- 
tion of  the  Theory  of  the  Law  of  Storms,  and  its  uses  to  Mariners 
of  all  Classes  in  all  Parts  of  the  World.  Shown  by  transparent 
Storm  Cards  and  useful  Lessons.  7th  Edition.  Demy  8vo,  cloth, 
loj^.  6d. 

PRAY  (Dr.).  ASTIGMATIC  LETTERS.  Printed  on  Mill- 
board,  size  22  by  14  inches,     is. 

PRIOR.  ON  THE  POPULAR  NAMES  OF  BRITISH 
PLANTS.  Being  an  Explanation  of  the  Origin  and  Meaning  of 
the  names  of  our  indigenous  and  most  commonly  cultivated  species. 
3rd  Edition.     Post  8vo.     7^.  6d. 

RANSOM  (W.  H.,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.R.C.P.).  THE  IN- 
FLAMMATION IDEA  IN  GENERAL  PATHOLOGY. 

Demy  8vo,  cloth,     "js,  6d. 

RAY    (PRAPHULLA    CHANDRA,     D.Sc,     Professor     of 

Chemistry,  Presidency  College,  Calcutta).  A  HISTORY 
OF  HINDU  CHEMISTRY  FROM  THE  EARLIEST 
TIMES  TO  THE  MIDDLE  OF  THE  SIXTEENTH 
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CATALOGUE  OF  PUBLICATIONS.  53 

REPORTS  OF  THE  THOMPSON-YATES  AND  JOHN- 
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IV.  Part  I.  1901.  20s.  Vol.  IV.  Part  2.  1902.  21s.  New 
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ROSS  (RONALD,  C.B.,  F.R.S.,  etc.,  Major  I. M.S.  (retired) ). 
MALARIAL  FEVER :  Its  Cause,  Prevention,  and  Treat- 
ment. (Liverpool  School  of  Tropical  Medicine,  Memoir  I.)  8vo, 
cloth.     25  6d. 

H.  E.  ANNETT,  M.D.,  D.P.H.,  and  E.  E.  AUSTEN. 

REPORT  OF  THE  MALARIA  EXPEDITION  TO 
SIERRA  LEONE  (1899).  (Liverpool  School  of  Tropical 
Medicine,  Memoir  II.)    4to.     21s. 

FIRST  PROGRESS  REPORT  OF  THE  CAMPAIGN 

AGAINST  MOSQUITOES  IN  SIERRA  LEONE  (1901). 

With  a  Letter  from  Dr.  Daniels  regarding  the  results  arrived  at  to 
date.  (Liverpool  School  of  Tropical  Medicine,  Memoir  V.  i.) 
is. 

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PAIGN AGAINST  MOSQUITOES  IN  SIERRA  LEONE 
(1902).  By  M.  Logan  Taylor,  M.B.  (Liverpool  School  of 
Tropical  Medicine,  Memoir  V.  2.)     is. 

REPORT     ON     MALARIA     AT     ISMAILIA     AND 

SUEZ.     (Liverpool  School  of  Tropical  Medicine,  Memoir  IX.) 

IS. 

SANDERS  (A.,  M.R.C.S.,  F.L.S.).  RESEARCHES  IN 
THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM  OF  MYXINE  GLUTIN- 
OSA.     4to,  sewed.     8  Plates,     los.  6d. 

SANG'S  LOGARITHMS.  A  new  Table  of  Seven-place  Loga- 
rithms of  all  Numbers  continuously  up  to  200,000.  2nd  Edition. 
Royal  8vo,  cloth.     21s. 

SCHCENBEIN.  CORRESPONDENCE  WITH  FARA- 
DAY.     See  Faraday. 

CORRESPONDENCE     WITH      BERZELIUS.       See 

Berzelius. 

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SCHREBER  (D.  G.  M.).  MEDICAL  INDOOR  GYMNAS- 
TICS, or  a  System  of  Hygienic  Exercises  for  Home  Use,  to  be 
practised  anywhere,  without  apparatus  or  assistance,  by  young  and 
old  of  either  sex,  for  the  preservation  of  health  and  general  activity. 
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large  plate  and  45  illustrations  in  the  text.  Royal  8vo,  cloth. 
3^.  net. 

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"  Well  worthy  of  the  attention  of  those  who  go  in  for  regular  physical  train- 
ing as  a  means  for  the  preservation  of  health." — Scotsman. 

"A  very  sensible  little  treatise." — Glasgow  Herald. 

SCHROEN  (L.).  SEVEN-FIGURE  LOGARITHMS  OF 
NUMBERS  from  i  to  108,000,  and  of  Sines,  Cosines, 
Tangents,  Cotangents  to  every  10  Seconds  of  the  Quad- 
rant. With  a  Table  of  Proportional  Parts.  By  Dr.  Ludwig 
Schroen,  Director  of  the  Observatory  of  Gena,  etc.,  etc.  5th 
Edition,  corrected  and  stereotyped.  With  a  description  of  the 
Tables  by  A.  De  Morgan,  Professor  of  Mathematics  in  University 
College,  London.  Imp.  8vo,  cloth,  printed  on  light  green  paper. 
gs. 

SNELLEN'S  OPHTHALMIC  TEST  TYPES.  Best  Types 
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considerably  augmented  and  improved.  8vo,  sewed.  4^-.  Single 
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ASTIGMATIC    TEST    CHART.      Long  folio,  varnished, 

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SONNTAG  (C.  O.).  A  POCKET  FLORA  OF  EDIN- 
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A  Collection  and  full  Description  of  all  Phanerogamic  and  the 
principal  Cryptogamic  Plants,  classified  after  the  Natural  System, 
with  an  artificial  Key  and  a  Glossary  of  Botanical  Terms,  By  the 
late  C.  O.  Sonntag,  the  Royal  High  School,  Edinburgh ;  formerly 
Secretary  of  the  Microscopical  Society  of  Glasgow,  etc.  Fcap.  8vo, 
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SPENCER  (W.  G.).  INVENTIONAL  GEOMETRY.  With 
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A    SYSTEM    OF     LUCID    SHORTHAND.      With    a 

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CATALOGUE  OF  PUBLICATIONS.  55 


STEPHENS  (J.  W.  W.,  M.D.  Cantab..  D.P.H.)  and  S.  R. 
CHRISTOPHERS,  M.B.  Vict,  I.M.S.  PRACTICAL 
STUDY  OF  MALARIA  AND  OTHER  BLOOD  PARA- 
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cine).    8vo,  cloth.     2nd  Edition.     I2s.  6d.  net. 

TAYLOR  (M.  LOGAN,  M.B.,  Ch.B.).  REPORT  ON  THE 
SANITARY  CONDITIONS  OF  CAPE  COAST  TOWN. 

(Liverpool  School   of  Tropical   Medicine,  Memoir  VIII.)     8vo. 
ij. 

REPORT    OF    THE    CAMPAIGN    AGAINST    THE 

MOSQUITOES    IN    SIERRA    LEONE.      See  Ross  and 
Taylor. 

TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  EPIDEMIOLOGICAL 
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56  WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 


VI.   Miscellaneous. 

ANTHROPOLOGY— SOCIOLOGY— MYTHOLOGY- 
BIBLIOGRAPHY— BIOGRAPHY,   ETC. 

AVEBURY  (Lord,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S.,  etc.)  (Sir  John  Lubbock). 
PREHISTORIC  TIMES,  as  Illustrated  by  Ancient  Re- 
mains and  the  Manners  and  Customs  of  Modern  Savages. 

6th  Edition,  revised,  with  239  Illustrations,  a  large  number  of 
which  are  specially  prepared  for  this  Edition.  Demy  8vo,  cloth, 
gilt  tops.     iSs. 

"  To  anyone  who  wishes  to  obtain  a  succinct  conspectus  of  the  present  state 
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comprehensive  volume." — Jour.  Brit.  Archckolog.  Assoc, 

"  The  fact  that  this  well-known  standard  work  has  reached  a  sixth  edition  is 
evidence  of  its  value  to  ethnologists  and  archaeologists.  The  many  and  beautiful 
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letterpress.  Lord  Avebury  is  to  be  congratulated  on  the  new  edition,  which 
is  sure  to  further  popularise  a  fascinating  subject  for  investigation  by  cultured 
people." — Science  Gossip. 

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order  to  see  how  much  it  has  been  improved.  The  illustrations  to  this  sixth 
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  REGISTER.  Published  Quarterly. 
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BLACKBURN    (HELEN).     WOMEN'S    SUFFRAGE.     A 

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with  a  Biographical  Sketch  of  Miss  Becker.  Portraits.  Crown  8vo, 
cloth.     6s. 

See  also  Vynne,  Nora,  and  Blackburn,  "  Women  under  the  Factory 

Acts." 

BROWN  (ROBERT,  Jun.,  F.S.A.).  SEMITIC  INFLU- 
ENCE IN  HELLENIC  MYTHOLOGY.  With  special 
reference  to  the  recent  mythological  works  of  the  Right  Hon. 
Prof.  Max  Miiller  and  Mr.  Andrew  Lang.  Demy  8vo,  cloth. 
7J.  6d. 

RESEARCHES    INTO    THE    ORIGIN    OF    THE 

PRIMITIVE  CONSTELLATIONS  OF  THE  GREEKS, 
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and  other  maps.     2  vols,  demy  8vo,  cloth.     \os.  6d.  each. 

MR.   GLADSTONE   AS    I    KNEW    HIM,  and  other 

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CATALOGUE  OF  PUBLICATIONS.  57 

CATALOGUE  OF  THE  LONDON  LIBRARY,  St  James's 
Square.  By  C.  T.  Hagberg  Wright,  LL.D.,  etc.  xiv+1626  pp. 
4to,  cloth.  42s.  net.  Supplement  I.,  1902-3.  Buckram,  i  vol., 
196  pp.  5j.net.  Supplement  II.  198  pp.  1903-4.  Buckram. 
$s.  net. 

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in  library  land,  and  as  a  monument  standing  upsn  a  firm  foundation  of  its  own." 
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CURTIN  (JEREMIAH).  CREATION  MYTHS  OF 
PRIMITIVE  AMERICA  IN  RELATION  TO  THE 
RELIGIOUS  HISTORY  AND  MENTAL  DEVELOP- 
MENT OF  MANKIND.  Contains  twenty  long  myths  taken 
down  word  for  word  by  Mr.  Curtin  from  Indians  who  knew  no 
religion  or  language  but  their  own,  and  many  of  whom  had  not  seen 
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elaborate  Introduction  and  Notes.     Demy  8vo,  cloth.     loj.  dd.  net. 

ENGELHARDT  (C).  DENMARK  IN  THE  EARLY 
IRON  AGE.  Illustrated  by  recent  Discoveries  in  the  Peat- 
Mosses  of  Slesvig.  33  Plates  (giving  representations  of  upwards  of 
a  thousand  objects).  Maps,  and  numerous  other  Illustrations  on 
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INDUSTRIAL  QUESTIONS.  Edited  by  Antoinette  M. 
Mackenzie.     Issued  quarterly,  sewed.     IJ*. 

FARNELL  (L.  R.,  D.Litt.).    EVOLUTION  OF  RELIGION. 

See  Crown  Theological  Library,  Vol.  XII.,  p.  13. 

GOLDAMMER  (H.).     THE  KINDERGARTEN.     A  Guide 

to  Frobel's  Method  of  Education.     2  vols,  in  i.     120  pp.  of  Illus- 
trations.    8vo,  cloth.     \os.  6d. 

HARRISON  (A.,  D.Sc).  WOMEN'S  INDUSTRIES  IN 
LIVERPOOL.  An  Inquiry  into  the  Economic  Effects  of  Legisla- 
tion regulating  the  Labour  of  Women.     8vo.     3^. 

HENRY  (JAMES).  iENEIDEA  ;  or,  Critical,  Exegetical  and 
.£stheticai  Remarks  on  the  ^Sneis.  With  a  personal  collation 
of  all  the  first-class  MSS.,  and  upwards  of  100  second-class  MSS., 
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JOHNSON  (E.).     THE  RISE  OF  ENGLISH  CULTURE. 

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KIEPERT'S  NEW  ATLAS  ANTIQUUS.  Twelve  Maps  of 
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antiqui  ad  illustrandam  potissimum  antiquissimi  aevi  usque  ad  Alex- 
andrum  M.  historiam.  For  the  study  of  ancient  history,  espe- 
cially the  history  of  the  Oriental  peoples  :  the  Indians,  Medes, 
Persians,  Babylonians,  Assyrians,  Egyptians,  Phoenicians,  etc. 
Scale  I  :  5,400,000.     Mounted  on  rollers,  varnished,  20s. 

General  Wall-map  of  the  Roman  Empire.  Imperii  Romani 
tabula  geographica.  For  the  study  of  the  development  of  the  Roman 
Empire.     Scale  i  :  300,000.    Mounted  on  rollers,  varnished.    24s. 

Wall-map  of  Ancient  Latium.  Latii  Veteris  et  finitimarum 
regionum  tabula.  For  the  study  of  Livy,  Dionysius,  etc.  Scale 
1:125,000.  With  supplement:  Environs  of  Rome.  Scale 
I  :  25,000.     Mounted  on  rollers,  varnished.     iSs. 

Wall-map  of  Ancient  Greece.  Graeciae  Antiquse  tabula.  For 
the  study  of  Herodotus,  Thucydides,  Xenophon,  Strabo,  Cornelius 
Nepos,  etc.  Scale  i  :  500,000.  Mounted  on  rollers,  varnished. 
24s. 

Wall- Map  of  the  Empires  of  the  Persians  and  of 
Alexander  the  Great.  Imperia  Persarum  et  Macedonum.  For 
the  study  of  Herodotus,  Xenophon,  Justinian,  Arian,  Curtius. 
Scale  I  :  300,000.     Mounted  on  rollers  and  varnished.     20J-. 

Wall- Map  of  Gaul,  with  portions  of  Ancient  Britain  and 
Ancient  Germany.  Galliae  Cisalpinae  et  Transalpinse  cum  parti- 
bus  Britannise  et  Germaniae  tabula.  For  the  study  of  Caesar, 
Justinian,  Livy,  Tacitus,  etc.  Scale  i  :  1,000,000.  Mounted  on 
rollers  and  varnished.     24s. 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


CATALOGUE  OF  PUBLICATIONS  59 

KIEPERT'S  WALL-MAPS  OF  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD— Contd. 

Wall- Map  of  Ancient  Asia  Minor.  Asiae  Minoris  Antiquae 
Tabula.  For  the  study  of  Herodotus,  Xenophon,  Justinian,  Arian, 
Curtius,  etc.  Scale  i  :  800,000.  Mounted  on  rollers  and  var- 
nished.    20s. 

LAING  and  HUXLEY.  PREHISTORIC  REMAINS  OF 
CAITHNESS.  By  Samuel  Laing,  Esq.,  with  Notes  on  the 
Human  Remains  by  Th.  H.  Huxley,  F.R.S.  150  Engravings. 
8vo,  cloth.     45.  6d. 

MARCKS  (ERICH,  Professor  of  Modern  History  at  the 
University  of  Leipzig).  ENGLAND  AND  GERMANY: 
Their  Relations  in  the  Great  Crises  of  European  History, 
1500-1900.     Demy  Svo,  stifif  wrapper,      is. 

OTIA  MERSEIANA.  The  Publication  of  the  Arts  Faculty  of  the 
University  of  Liverpool,  Vols.  I. -III.  Svo.  1899-1903.  Each 
I  OS.  6d. 

PEDDIE  (R.  A.).  PRINTING  AT  BRESCIA  IN  THE 
FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.     A  List  of  the  Issues.     5.?.  net. 

ST.  CLAIR  (GEORGE,  Author  of  ^'Creation  Records,"  "Buried 
Cities  and  Bible  Countries,"  etc.).  MYTHS  OF  GREECE 
EXPLAINED  AND  DATED.  An  Embalmed  History  from 
Uranus  to  Perseus,  including  the  Eleusinian  Mysteries  and  the 
Olympic  Games.     Demy  Svo.     2  vols.     16;-. 

SCHLOSS  (DAVID  F.).  METHODS  OF  INDUSTRIAL 
REMUNERATION.  3rd  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 
Crown  Svo,  cloth,     ts.  6d. 

"  In  its  new  as  in  its  old  form  the  book  is  well  nigh  indispensable  to  the 
student  who  desires  to  get  some  insight  into  the  actual  facts  about  the  various 
methods  of  industrial  remuneration,  and  the  degree  of  success  with  which  they 
have  been  applied  in  the  various  trades. " — Manchester  Guardian. 

'  More  useful  than  ever  to  the  students  of  the  labour  problem." — Political 
Science  Quarterly. 

SPENCER  (HERBERT).     AN  AUTOBIOGRAPHY.      See 

p.  31. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  SOCIOLOGY.     See^,  31. 

STUDY  OF  SOCIOLOGY.     See^.  32. 

DESCRIPTIVE  SOCIOLOGY.     See  p.  32. 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


6o  WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 


STEPHENS  (GEORGE).  PROFESSOR  BUGGE'S 
STUDIES  ON  NORTHERN  MYTHOLOGY  EX- 
AMINED.    Illustrations.     8vo,  cloth.     8^. 

THE  RUNES,  WHENCE  CAME  THEY?    4to,  sewed. 

6s. 

OLD    NORTHERN     RUNIC     MONUMENTS.     Vol. 

IV.     Folio.     20S.  net. 

VEILED  FIGURE  (THE),  and  Other  Poems.  Large  post  8vo, 
buckram,  gilt,  cover  designed  by  Mr.  T.  Blake  Wirgman. 
2s.  6d. 

VYNNE  (NORA)  and  HELEN  BLACKBURN,  and  with 
the  Assistance  of  H.  W.  ALLASON.  WOMEN  UNDER 
THE  FACTORY  ACTS.  Part  i.  Position  of  the  Employer 
Part  2.  Position  of  the  Employed.     Crown  8vo,  cloth,     is.  net. 

WELD  (A.  G.).  GLIMPSES  OF  TENNYSON  AND  OF 
SOME  OF  HIS  FRIENDS.  With  an  Appendix  by  the  late 
Bertram  Tennyson.  Illustrated  with  Portraits  in  photogravure 
and  colour,  and  with  a  facsimile  of  a  MS.  poem.  Fcap.  8vo, 
art  linen.     4^-.  6d.  net. 

"  This  is  a  delightful  little  book,  written  by  one  who  has  all  the  qualifications 
for  the  task — the  opportunities  of  observation,  the  interest  of  relationship,  and  the 
sympathetic  and  appreciative  temper.  .  .  .  We  do  not  attempt  to  criticise, 
but  only  to  give  such  a  description  as  will  send  our  readers  to  it," — Spectator. 

"  Everyone  who  reads  the  book  will  understand  Tennyson  a  little  better, 
and  many  will  view  him  in  a  new  aspect  for  the  first  time." — Daily  Chronicle. 

"  It  is  quite  worthy  of  a  place  side  by  side  with  the  larger  '  Life.' " — Glasgow 
Herald. 


14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


CATALOGUE  OF  PUBLICATIONS.  6i 


LIST   OF    PERIODICALS,    REVIEWS,  AND 

TRANSACTIONS    AND   PROCEEDINGS 

OF    LEARNED  SOCIETIES 

PUBLISHED  BY  WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE. 


THE  HIBBERT  JOURNAL:  A  Quarterly  Review  of 
Religion,  Theology,  and  Philosophy.  Single  numbers,  2s.  6J. 
net.     Subscription,  ios.  per  annum,  post  free. 

"There  is,  for  English  readers  at  least,  no  existing  medium  for  expression  of 
free-thought  in  this  best  sense  ;  and  should  anything  but  success  await  the  venture 
of  publishing  '  The  Hibbert  Journal,' we  shall  confess  painful  surprise.  .  .  . 
It  will  be  a  reflection  on  our  theological  and  philosophical  students  if  they  do  not 
show  full  appreciation  of  a  journal  so  admirably  planned  and  so  strongly 
commenced.  .  .  .  For  the  form  of  the  journal  we  have  nothing  but  praise, 
the  print  being  large  and  the  margins  ample.  We  have  never  with  more  sincerity 
wished  well  to  a  new  undertaking  ;  and  should  it  fulfil  its  undoubted  possibilities, 
'  The  Hibbert  Journal '  must  be  of  immense  service  to  all  serious  and  progressive 
students  of  the  subjects  with  which  it  deaX^."— Christian  World. 

MIND :    A  Quarterly  Review  of  Psychology  and  Philosophy. 

Edited  by  Dr.  G.  F.  Stout.     Published  in  the  first  week  of  January, 
April,  July,  and  October.     4$-.     Per  annum,  12s.,  post  free. 

THE    LIBERAL    CHURCHMAN:     A  Quarterly  Review. 

Subscription,  ^s.  per  annum,  post  free.     Single  numbers,  is,  net ; 
IS.  2d.  post  free. 

THE  ENGLISHWOMAN'S  REVIEW  OF  SOCIAL  AND 
INDUSTRIAL  QUESTIONS.  Edited  by  Antoinette  M. 
Mackenzie.  Issued  quarterly  on  15th  January,  April,  July,  and 
October.     Price  is.     Per  annum,  ^s.  6d.^  post  free. 

JOURNAL  OF  THE  FEDERATED  MALAY  STATES 
MUSEUMS.  Issued  quarterly.  Single  numbers,  is.  6d.  net. 
Subscription,  5^-.  per  annum. 

JOURNAL  OF  THE  ROYAL  MICROSCOPICAL 
SOCIETY,  containing  its  Transactions  and  Proceedings,  with 
other  Microscopical  Information.  Bi-monthly.  6s.  net.  Yearly 
subscriptions,  37^.  6d.y  post  free. 


14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


62         WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S  CATALOGUE. 


LIST  OF  PERIODICALS,  Etc.-Continued. 

JOURNAL  OF  THE  QUEKETT  MICROSCOPICAL 
CLUB.  Issued  half-yearly,  April  and  November.  Price -3^.  6^. 
net.     7j.  6d.  per  annum,  post  free. 

LINNEAN  SOCIETY  OF  LONDON.  Journal  of  Botany  and 
Journal  of  Zoology.     Published  irregularly  at  various  prices. 

ROYAL  SOCIETY  OF  EDINBURGH.  Transactions.  Issued 
irregularly  at  various  prices. 

LIVERPpOL       MARINE       BIOLOGY       COMMITTEE. 

Memoirs.  I. -XII.  already  published  at  various  prices.  Fauna  of 
Liverpool  Bay.  Fifth  Report  written  by  Members  of  the  Com- 
mittee and  other  Naturalists.     Cloth.     Ss.  6d.  net.     See  p.  50. 

MEMOIRS  OF  THE  LIVERPOOL  SCHOOL  OF 
TROPICAL  MEDICINE.     Seep.  51. 

ROYAL  ASTRONOMICAL  SOCIETY.  Memoirs  and  Monthly 
Notices.      Yearly  volumes  at  various  prices. 

ROYAL  IRISH  ACADEMY.  Transactions  and  Proceedings 
issued  irregularly  ;  prices  vary.  Cunningham  Memoirs.  Vols. 
I.-X.  already  issued  at  various  prices. 

ROYAL  DUBLIN  SOCIETY.  Transactions  and  Proceedings. 
Issued  irregularly  at  various  prices. 

REPORTS  OF  THE  THOMPSON-YATES  LABORA- 
TORIES.    See  p.  53. 

TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  EPIDEMIOLOGICAL 
SOCIETY  OF  LONDON.     Seep.  55. 


1  ■ 


PRINTED   BY  NEILL  AND  CO.,   LTD.,    EDINBURGH. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
BERKELEY 

Return  to  desk  from  which  borrowed. 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


DEC  81  1947 


3  j  ^ 


nEC27  19GS3 
RECEIVEP 

DEC  2  2  '66  -2 


LOAN  DEPT. 

,D  21-100m-9,'47(A6702sl6) 


SEP  1 5  1969  09 
REC'D  LD 


FM 


SEP  3'69-lpM 


476 


Adi. 


